Land tenure and farm management efficiency: The case of smallholder rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra

This study assesses the impact of land tenure institutions on the efficiency of farm management based on a case study of rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra, Indonesia. Using the modes of land acquisition as measures of land tenure institutions, we estimated tree planting, revenue, income, and short-run profit functions, and internal rates of return to tree planting on smallholder rubber fields. We find generally insignificant differences in the incidence of tree planting and management efficiency (defined as residual profits) of rubber production between newly emerging private ownership and customary ownership. This is consistent with our hypothesis that tree planting confers stronger individual rights, if land rights are initially weak (as in the case of family land under customary land tenure systems). On the other hand, short-term profits are higher on land that is rented through share tenancy. This result indicates that rubber trees are over-exploited under renting arrangements due partly to the short-run nature of the land tenancy contracts and partly to the difficulty landowners face in supervising tapping activities of tenants in spatially dispersed rubber fields. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The role of land tenure in conservation of tree and shrub species diversity in miombo woodlands of southern Malawi

Biodiversity is declining throughout southern African miombo woodlands due to poor land use practices that are detrimental to soil, vegetation and habitat. We aimed at examining tree and shrub species diversity and distribution in Uapaca kirkiana-dominated woodlands under three land tenure types; forest reserves, customary and leasehold land. The study was conducted at different forest sites within similar agroecological zone in southern Malawi. Study sites were located at a range of altitudes between 900 and 1,200 m a.s.l. Three circular plots each with 32.60 m radius were established at each study site to sample tree and shrub species composition, structure and distribution under three land tenure types. We found that forest reserves had higher species diversity with an average of 16 tree families, 27 genera and 34 species as compared to only 10 tree families, 6 genera and 6 species on customary forest lands. Comparisons of diameter at breast height size class distributions showed that customary land had significantly low numbers of small (5.0–10.0 cm) and very large (≥30 cm) diameter classes suggesting lower levels of regeneration and high rate of anthropogenic activities. The high species diversity and richness in forest reserves and leasehold land indicate high potential for protected lands to restore tree species diversity. It is concluded that levels of human activities as influenced by land tenure type reduce tree species diversity, composition and distribution at the different sites, and this confirms the hypothesis that open access lands are not compatible with conservation of tree and shrub species diversity because of high anthropogenic activities.     

Using a Logistic Regression Model to Analyze Alley Farming Adoption Factors in Sierra Leone

Slash-and-burn shifting cultivation is the conventional farming practice in Sierra Leone, where communal land tenure is by far the most common form of land use. Alley farming, the alternative agricultural system, has been introduced as a technical option to increase yield, reduce or eliminate fallow and conserve soil water. This study uses a logistic regression model to determine the factors influencing the adoption of alley farming in Sierra Leone. Data for the study were collected from a total of 160 farmers in 16 farming communities across 4 ecotones in the Freetown Peninsula through a survey, interactive discussion and personal observation. It is found that although most of these communities are aware of alley farming, female farmers are less likely than males to adopt this farming technology. Also membership of farmers’ associations and access to extension services positively influences adoption of alley farming, but limited land availability hinders adoption in the region. Most of the farmers practicing or trying out alley farming prefer this farming system over slash-and-burn shifting cultivation. High demand for fuelwood, short or no fallow periods and replenishment of soil fertility are among the attributes driving farmers to switch to alley farming. Despite its merits, alley farming is not perceived as a complete substitute for slash-and-burn shifting cultivation in the study area. For wider adoption, there is the need to develop demonstration farms to show the feasibility of incorporating farmer-specific biophysical, hydro-climatic and socio-economic conditions into alley farming system in the region.     

Factors affecting the adoption of agroforestry practices by farmers in Cameroon

This paper presents empirical evidence on the impact of socio-economic factors on the adoption of agroforestry practices in Cameroon. The analysis uses primary farm-level data collected from June to December 1996. Three major provinces of the country were covered, namely Centre, Southwest and Northwest Several agroforestry technologies have been promoted among farmers in the zone, including alley farming, improved fallow, live fencing, cut-and-carry fodder and apiculture. The status of adoption of each agroforestry practice is described and factors that affect adoption identified. These are gender of farmer, household family size, level of education, farmer’s experience, membership within farmers’ associations, contact with research and extension, security of land tenure, agroecological zone, distance of the village from nearest town, village accessibility and income from livestock. Research findings indicate that since factors affecting farmers’ adoption of agroforestry practices differ across techniques, generalisation is to be avoided.     

Drivers of adoption of eucalypt tree farming by smallholders in Thailand

Eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) tree farming is a source of income for many smallholders in developing and emerging countries and critical to the resource supply of many pulp and paper companies. These companies rely on smallholders adopting tree farming, sometimes by offering a contract. This paper reports a study from four regions of Thailand, where smallholder eucalypt tree farming is important, which investigated what characteristics of smallholders were associated with greater adoption of tree farming. A total of 461 eucalypt tree farmers and 171 non-tree farmers were randomly selected and surveyed in these regions, using a door-to-door household survey. A logit analysis corroborated hypotheses about the drivers of adoption. Qualitative analyses were used to inform interpretation of the quantitative results and shed light on the role of eucalypt tree farming in smallholders’ livelihood. Results demonstrate that those with suitable land available are more likely to adopt eucalypt tree farming than others. In addition, perception of land tenure security matters in the adoption of tree growing, but holding a formal land tenure document does not. Adoption of eucalypt tree farming in Thailand is not part of a land use intensification strategy. Instead, eucalypts are used as an alternative crop for low productivity land, on which eucalypts are the most profitable crop. Eucalypt tree farming also gives smallholders an opportunity to diversify their income. In addition, this alternative land use has the advantage of requiring low labour inputs between planting and harvest. This is particularly advantageous for many tree growers who have off-farm income or rely on hired labour for farming their land.     

Stepwise approach to alley cropping technology development and transfer in the forest zone of Cameroon

Two projects on alley cropping research and development have been implemented in the Forest zone of Cameroon (FZC) since 1988. Their goal was to identify the main agricultural constraints in the FZC and to introduce alley cropping in the farming systems to improve soil fertility and crop yields. The first step in the implementation process was the participatory surveys which revealed that (a) the main agricultural constraint in the FZC is low soil fertility; (b) alley cropping is an agroforestry technology which may solve the problem; (c) alley cropping should be first targetted to farmers who own inherited or purchased lands. The second step was the on-station tree screening activity from which Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Calliandra calothyrsus and Paraserianthes falcataria were identified as promising tree species. The third activity was to test alley cropping with three promising tree species (Leucaena, Gliricidia and Calliandra) on farmers' fields. Results from the first year testing on farmers' fields showed that: (1) the direct seeding method used was ineffective: seedling emergence rate was 45% for Leucaena and 52% for Gliricidia; (2) Cassava suppressed the growth of Leucaena and Gliricidia by 57 and 45%, respectively; (3) three-month-old Calliandra seedlings planted 1 m away from cassava plants had 96% survival rate. Based on these third step findings, all new farms were established with Calliandra seedlings using maize as a test-crop in the year of establishment and the subsequent year. After two years of cropping, maize grain yield in alley plots was 52% higher than maize grown on no-tree plots. In 1993, 52 farmers who had witnessed the alley farm maize growth in 1992 requested to join the project. This sudden interest of farmers to start their own alley farms was considered as a positive sign for adoption and therefore a success in alley cropping (AC) introduction in the zone.     

林地使用权的相关问题探讨

林地使用权仅限于从林地所有权人处获得初始使用权,以及通过转让方式从原林地使用权人处获得的权利。林地使用权出租形成林地租赁权,不应纳入林地使用权的范畴。林地承包经营权则属于林地使用权中的一个类别。林地使用权的性质为用益物权,内容包括种植林木,利用林下资源从事采集、种植或养殖,以及森林景观开发等权利。     

Hillside forest land as a safety net for local people in a mountain village in West Java: an examination of differences in the significance of national and private lands

 In Kemang, a mountain village in West Java, Indonesia, the local people call the hillsides pasir, a term which includes both privately owned hillside land or nationally owned forest land. It is apparent that the national forest lands function as a social safety net, serving as land where the middle-class and the poor can conduct “informal” cultivation, through temporary agreements with the state forestry corporation, or even “illegal” cultivation without permission. In this study, the households cultivating on national forest lands were identified as: (1) having most household members living together; (2) having a relatively young head person; (3) cultivating a small area of rice field; (4) having participated in the former perhutanan sosial system; (5) being dependent on the income from hillside land; (6) taking advantage of the rare opportunities for off-farm income; and (7) having a low total income. Meanwhile, the talun-huma system is dominant on privately owned hillside land, where a part of the talun, or tree garden, is cleared for use as a swidden on a 30-year rotation. In such cases, the land functions as a safety net only for the limited number of people who are permitted access to the land. The function of the privately owned hillside land, through the mutual-aid system, should not be overestimated; it is probably less important than national forest land in terms of income redistribution. It is recommended that the government of Indonesia consider the possibility of formally ensuring the long-term rights of local people to utilize the national forest lands in Java. Received: April 6, 2001 / Accepted: October 24, 2002 Acknowledgments This paper is in part a result of the research activities of the Core University Program in Applied Bioscience between the University of Tokyo and Bogor Agricultural University, sponsored by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). The authors would like to express their thanks to Prof. Sumiaki Iwamoto, the University of Tokyo, for his kind help. Correspondence to:M. Inoue     

国外森林权属制度改革现状与路径

近30年来,世界许多国家开展了森林及林地权属制度改革。改革的主要方向是将森林/林木的所有权/经营管理权下放给政府之外的利益主体,包括家庭、企业和社区。这种改革涉及到森林管理权和经营利用权的下放及森林所有权私有化等复杂多样的产权形式。文中以联合国粮农组织发布的相关报告及国外林权改革相关文献资料为主要素材,选择德国、日本、新西兰、欧洲部分转型国家及独联体国家等诸多国家的改革案例,对国外林权制度改革类型进行梳理,以总结国外林权制度改革的现状、路径和趋势等,为我国林权制度改革提供借鉴。     

Impact of Land Tenure Change on Land Use

China is a public ownership country. At present, theownership of land belongs to the country andcollectivity. In China, the meaning of ownership ofland is the light that the owners of land can possessthe land, use the land, get some interest from the landand deal with the land according to laws. The 4 sectionsof ownership of land can either be combined or beseparated to carry out. In practice, these 4 sections ofownership are usually separated to carry out. The tenureof land is an independent…     

四川退耕还林可持续经营模式探讨

退耕地是具有一定高度和坡度的特殊土地体系，受地形因素和自然规律的综合作用，孕育了经营模式上的多样性和复杂性。在分析四川水土流失现状和退耕还林工程总体布局的基础上，设计退耕还林经营模式，从宏观上提出特殊区域地方特色的退耕还林模式，以指导退耕还林工程。     

珠海市城区集体林地管理与改革

从珠海市城区集体林地的所有权、使用权出发,分析城区林地管理现状,阐明城区林地存在的问题,确定城区集体林地转变为国有林地的方法和途径。     

Conserving Forests in Privatized Commons: Trends and Management Options in an Ifugao Village,Philippines

This study addresses the question, ‘How can remaining forests be conserved when these are already individually privatized, and when the people prefer landuses other than forestry?’ These changes in landuse and forest ownership are demonstrated through a case study of a village in Ifugao, Philippines. A rapid and continued conversion of forest into agricultural land is observed, particularly for vegetable farming. Traditionally, most of the village total land area was under communal land ownership, but now almost half is under de facto private ownership. This transition in land (including forest) ownership is generally attributed to increased demand for land which is further attributed to changes in peoples’ values towards wealth accumulation rather than redistribution, greater integration to the market economy and a shift towards commercial agriculture. Past forest policies have been ineffective in regulating the landuse largely because they have not reflected local reality, and this appears to be true with the present national forest management strategy of community-based forest management. It is argued that the granting of land titles will improve forest conservation because it will improve the enforcement of forest laws and related contractual agreements. Based on the reality of private land ownership, it is further argued that forest policy in IP land should include private (individual, family or household) forest management. Given the possibility that indigenous people may prefer landuses other than forestry or may sell their property for various reasons, policies should regulate landuse as well as make it legal for IPs to transfer rights of ownership to ‘outsiders’. There is scope to improve the implementation of the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act in the Philippines.     

Agroforestry practice and policy in the United States of America

Agroforestry practices and the policies influencing development and adoption within the United States are reviewed. Agroforestry is defined as ‘intensive land-management systems that optimize the benefits from biological interactions created when trees and/or shrubs are deliberately combined with crops and/or livestock’. The five agroforestry systems identified as having importance in the US are tree-agronomic crop systems (alley cropping and intercropping), riparian vegetative buffer strip systems, tree-animal systems (silvopasturing), forest/speciality crop systems (forest farming) and windbreak systems (shelterbelts). A lack of federal policy relating specifically to agroforestry exists. If agroforestry is to achieve its full potential in the United States, adequate financial, institutional and technical support for its development must be provided.     

Needs of private forest owners in the context of changing political systems: Lithuania as a case study

During the first half of the 20^th century the Baltic States were independent democratic nations where private forest ownership was practiced. After annexation to the Soviet Union, individuals in the Baltic States lost their ownership rights and collective ownership was introduced. Currently, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, the land restitution process in the forest sector is coming to an end and the ownership pattern as well as tenure rights are settled. A survey was undertaken to investigate the current state of the private forest sector in general, and the needs and expectations of private forest owners (PFO). Results of the study indicated that for private forest owners their forests first of all provide aesthetic and environmental protection values. Lithuanian PFOs lack information of forests and forest management, face extensive bureaucracy and need help in protecting their forests from fires, diseases and timber thieves.     

集体林权制度改革背景下广西林农认知和参与林业科技服务程度分析

基于广西3县7个村镇334户林农问卷调查的统计结果,对广西林农认知和参与林业科技服务的现状进行分析。结果表明：林权改革后的广西大多数林农拿到了林权证,80%以上的林农关注过乡政府或村委会承办的林业知识宣传栏,但仅有47.6%的林农在分到林地后接受过林业知识或技术培训,43.4%的林农接受过林业专家的林业科学技术指导;另外,通过林农林地拥有量与愿意参与林业科技服务活动的相关性分析后发现,林地较多的林农需要科技服务的意愿要强于林地较少的林农,林地越多的林农进行经营管理的活动就越多。由此可知,广西林农对于林业科技服务的认知和参与程度还不是很高,有待相关管理部门和研究学者进一步研究,找寻其中的主要原因。     

Non-operator landowner interest in agroforestry practices in two Missouri watersheds

Land tenure has long been considered a critical factor in determining the adoption and long-term maintenance of agroforestry practices. Empirical evidence from non-US settings has consistently shown that secure land tenure is positively associated with agroforestry adoption. In the US, over 40% of private agricultural land is farmed by someone other than the owner. Given the importance of land tenure in agroforestry decisions in other countries and the magnitude of non-operator landownership in the US, there has been surprisingly little focus on land tenure in the temperate agroforestry literature. Using data from a 1999 survey in Missouri, this study explores factors associated with non-operator landowner interest in agroforestry. Results suggest that differences in farming orientation are linked to interest in agroforestry. Closer ties to farming, stronger financial motivations for landownership, and higher proportion of land planted to row crops were negatively related to interest in agroforestry among non-operator landowners. Environmental or recreational motivations for landownership and contacts with natural resource professionals were positively associated with interest in agroforestry. These results, consistent with earlier qualitative research suggesting that farm operators who have a strong “conventional farming identity” were less interested in agroforestry, point to a divide between landowners for whom environmental and recreational values play an important role in ownership motivation and those for whom financial considerations take precedence. The findings imply that agroforestry development programs in the US should take non-operator landowners and their farming and ownership orientations into account when designing research and outreach efforts.

Changes of land tenure and the introduction of tree cash crops by shifting cultivators: The case of the Paluan Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia

Shifting cultivation is one of the main factors that has caused forest degradation in many tropical countries. In Sabah, Malaysia, the government has granted land titles to local farmers outside the Forest reserve, and introduced tree cash crops to reduce farmers’ dependence on shifting cultivation. Granting land titles, however, was not always an incentive for farmers to plant tree cash crops. Farmers often planted tree cash crops on land without secure legal rights. The Land Ordinance and illegal logging had introduced exclusive and (semi-)permanent rights to land into this region, and the Forest reserve also was divided among villagers. The Land Ordinance stipulates that planting trees confers permanent heritable and transferable rights of use and occupancy but not within Forest reserves. Local farmers who were anxious about their land rights believed that they could obtain those rights even within the Forest reserve, and applied for land titles. Farmers planted tree cash crops not only for future income but also to secure their land rights. At present, the policy of Forest reserve has nearly collapsed in this region and it is impossible to neglect or remove local farmers if the government utilizes Forest reserves for any purpose. Lands in the interior regions will be reclassified in the near future out of necessity.     

中国西部退耕还林基本策略研究

２１世纪,生态危机成为人类面临的最大威胁,森林作为陆地生态系统的主体,自然成为世人瞩目的集点。由于中国西部水土流失、土地沙化、水资源紧张、生物多样性锐减等问题越来越突出,给人民的生活与国民经济发展造成巨大损失。退耕还林成为中华民族生态与发展的根本大计,这不仅关系到当代人的生存与发展,而且关系到子孙后代的生存与发展,文章在上述背景下提出了符合中国实际的对策,供决策部门参考。