Agarose gel electrophoretic fractionation of serum proteins in adult cattle. II. A study of cows with different diseases.

In 283 dairy cows suffering from internal disorders the serum proteins were studied by agarose gel electrophoresis supplemented by total protein and albumin determinations. The clinical diagnoses could be grouped according to protein pattern. Group 1 (abomasal displacement and traumatic muscle injury) did not appreciably affect the serum protein concentrations and represented primarily non-inflammatory diseases or diseases of non-infectious origin. Group 2 (leukosis) occupied an exceptional position, with heavy lowering of albumin unaccompanied by a corresponding rise of total globulin. The γ-globulin concentration was significantly lowered. Group 3 (acute traumatic peritonitis) represented an acute inflammatory process with increase chiefly of the α-globulins, while the γ-globulin concentration was normal. Group 4 (chronic traumatic peritonitis, summer mastitis, chronic subclinical mastitis, chronic laminitis and polyarthritis, urinary tract infection, abscess, and sub-acute-chronic pneumonia) comprised diseases chiefly of chronic inflammatory character and with infectious origin. Especially characteristic was the heavy rise of globulins in general and of γ-globulin in particular. In most cases there was a large increase also of the α- and p-globulin fractions.     

Electrophoretic studies of serum protein fractions in horses with laminitis]

The spectrum of serum proteins was evaluated in 46 horses affected with spontaneous laminitis and correlations between the severity of the disease and changes of the protein pattern were analyzed. The investigation was made in two groups; group A consisted of 21 horses of various breeds (warmblood, thoroughbred, standardbred) and group B of 25 ponys. Each group was subdivided according to the severity of the disease, using the OBEL-grade (OG) classification system. Serum proteins were separated by different one- and two-dimensional electrophoretic methods. Sera analysed by cellulose acetate electrophoresis showed a significant difference in the alpha 1-globulin fraction between OG II and OG IV affected horses. An increasing severity of the disease was correlated with a decrease of the alpha 1-globulins. The other protein fractions didn't show a uniform tendency. In group B there was a significant difference in the alpha 1-globulin fractions of OG II and OG III and in the beta 2-globulin fractions of OG I and OG II affected ponys. The acute phase proteins C3c, C4, Hp and fibronectin could be determined in a preliminary study in horse serum using the cross-reactivity of antibodies against the homologous human proteins.     

Concentrations of serum amyloid A and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein in horses with colic

OBJECTIVE: To determine concentrations of 2 acute-phase proteins (serum amyloid A [SAA] and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein [LBP]) in serum samples obtained from horses with colic and identify relationships among these acute-phase proteins and clinical data. ANIMALS: 765 horses with naturally developing gastrointestinal tract diseases characterized by colic (ie, clinical signs indicative of abdominal pain) and 79 healthy control horses; all horses were examined at 2 university teaching hospitals. PROCEDURE: Serum concentrations of SAA and LBP were determined by immunoturbidometric and dot-blot assays, respectively. RESULTS: SAA and LBP concentrations were determined for 718 and 765 horses with colic, respectively. Concentrations of SAA were significantly higher in nonsurvivors than in survivors, and horses with enteritis or colitis and conditions characterized by chronic inflammation (eg, abdominal abscesses, peritonitis, or rectal tears) had SAA concentrations significantly greater than those for horses with other conditions. Serum concentrations of LBP did not correlate with outcome, disease process, or portion of the gastrointestinal tract affected. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Circulating concentrations of SAA were significantly higher at admission in horses with colic attributable to conditions having a primary inflammatory cause (eg, enteritis, colitis, peritonitis, or abdominal abscesses) and were higher in horses that failed to survive the episode of colic, compared with concentrations in horses that survived. Serum concentrations of LBP did not correlate with survival. Analysis of these findings suggests that evaluation of SAA concentrations may be of use in identifying horses with colic attributable to diseases that have inflammation as a primary component of pathogenesis.     

Serum tumor necrosis factor activity in horses with colic attributable to gastrointestinal tract disease.

Over a 24-month period, serum tumor necrosis factor (TNF) activity was determined in 289 horses with colic attributable to gastrointestinal tract disease. Serum TNF activity was quantitated by use of a modified in vitro cytotoxicity bioassay, using WEHI 164 clone-13 murine fibrosarcoma cells. Causes for colic, determined by clinical and laboratory evaluation, exploratory celiotomy, or necropsy included: gastrointestinal tract rupture (GTR); ileal impaction; small intestinal strangulating obstruction (SIO); proximal enteritis (PE); transient small intestinal distention; large-colon displacement; large-colon volvulus; large-colon impaction; colitis; small-colon obstruction; peritonitis; and unknown. Each diagnosis was placed into 1 of 3 lesion categories: inflammatory disorders (GTR, PE, colitis, peritonitis); strangulating intestinal obstruction (SIO, large-colon volvulus); and nonstrangulating intestinal obstruction (ileal impaction, transient small intestinal distension, large-colon displacement, large-colon impaction, small-colon obstruction, unknown). The prevalence of high serum TNF activity and/or mortality were evaluated. Differences were tested at significance level of P less than 0.05. Approximately 20% of the 289 horses has serum TNF activity greater than that found in clinically normal horses (greater than 2.5 U/ml). Twenty-three horses (8%) had marked increase in serum TNF activity (greater than or equal to 10 U/ml) which was more prevalent among horses with SIO and PE than in horses of other diagnostic groups, except those with GTR. Mortality and marked increase in serum TNF activity were greater in horses with intestinal inflammatory disorders or strangulating intestinal obstruction than in horses with nonstrangulating intestinal obstruction.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Use of serum amyloid A in equine medicine and surgery

Serum amyloid A (SAA) has become an indispensable part of the management of equine patients in general practice and specialized hospital settings. Although several proteins possess acute phase properties in horses, the usefulness of SAA exceeds that of other acute phase proteins. This is due to the highly desirable kinetics of the equine SAA response. SAA concentrations exhibit a rapid and pronounced increase in response to inflammation and a rapid decline after the resolution of inflammation. This facilitates the detection of inflammatory disease and real-time monitoring of inflammatory activity. SAA may be used in all stages of patient management: (1) before diagnosis (to rule in/rule out inflammatory disease), (2) at the time of diagnosis (to assess the severity of inflammation and assist in prognostication), and (3) after diagnosis (to monitor changes in inflammatory activity in response to therapy, with relapse of disease, or with infectious/inflammatory complications). By assessing other acute phase reactants in addition to SAA, clinicians can succinctly stage inflammation. White blood cell counts and serum iron concentration change within hours of an inflammatory insult, SAA within a day, and fibrinogen within 2–3 days; the interrelationship of these markers thus indicates the duration and activity of the inflammatory condition. Much research on the equine SAA response and clinical use has been conducted in the last decade. This is the prerequisite for the evidence-based use of this analyte. However, still today, most published studies involve a fairly low number of horses. To obtain solid evidence for use of SAA, future studies should be designed with larger sample sizes.     

Comparison of Serum Amyloid A in Horses With Infectious and Noninfectious Respiratory Diseases

The acute phase protein serum amyloid A (SAA) has been shown to be a useful inflammatory parameter in the horse, but studies showing SAA responses to specific respiratory disease etiologies are limited. The goal of this study was to evaluate SAA responses in horses with infectious and noninfectious respiratory diseases as well as healthy, control horses. Two hundred seven horses were grouped into the following categories: equine influenza virus (EIV), equine herpesvirus-4 (EHV-4), Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi ss equi), inflammatory airway disease (IAD), and healthy controls. Serum amyloid A concentrations were determined for all horses on serum using a stall-side lateral flow immunoassay test. Serum amyloid A levels were found to be significantly greater for infectious respiratory diseases (EIV, EHV-4, S. equi ss equi) and horses with IAD when compared to control horses. There was a significant difference between viral and bacterial infections and IAD. Although SAA values from horses with S. equi ss equi were significantly greater when compared to horses with viral infections (EIV/EHV-4), the wide range of SAA values precluded accurate classification of the infectious cases. In conclusion, SAA is more reliably elevated with infections of the respiratory tract rather than noninfectious airway conditions. This can facilitate early detection of respiratory infections, help track disease progression, and aid practitioners in making recommendations about proper biosecurity and isolation of potentially contagious horses.     

Acute Phase Responses of Different Positions of High-Goal (Elite) Polo Ponies

The aim of this study was to investigate the acute phase response (APR) in 15 horses by quantifying physiological venous blood variables and serum acute phase proteins (APP) at 5 minutes and 6 and 12 hours after a training match of high-goal polo. The horses were divided into three experimental groups based on their team positions, including defense (n = 6), midfield (n = 5), and attack (n = 4). Serum proteinograms were obtained by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Data were evaluated using analysis of variance for repeated measures. The match represented a high-intensity stimulus for all positions. Defenders appeared to use the anaerobic pathway more than the other positions, as shown by their lower pH and greater lactatemia. Alterations in muscle membrane permeability were observed in all horses, as seen by the increase in serum creatine kinase activity without a correlation with APR. Significant elevations in total serum protein, albumin, ceruloplasmin, haptoglobin, alpha-1 antitrypsin, and 23-kDa protein were seen only during the course of the physical exertion of the match, although there were no differences in these values among positions of the team. After 6 hours of the match, the concentration of transferrin declined, whereas that of alpha-1 acid glycoprotein remained unaltered at all assessed times. These results demonstrated that the defenders required the most use of the anaerobic pathway during the match, and that equestrian polo exercise triggers an acute phase response of relatively short duration; this APR is characterized as noninflammatory, as APR appears to be a physiological alteration related to the stress inherent in physical exercise.     

Effects of ophthalmic disease on concentrations of plasma fibrinogen and serum amyloid A in the horse

Reasons for performing study: There is little scientific information available about the ability of ocular disease to cause a systemic inflammatory response. Horses are frequently affected with ocular disease and ensuring their systemic health prior to performing vision saving surgery under anaesthesia is essential for the successful treatment of ophthalmic disease. Hypothesis: Ocular disease will cause elevations in the concentration of the acute phase proteins fibrinogen and serum amyloid A in peripheral blood. Methods: Whole blood and serum samples were obtained from 38 mature horses with ulcerative keratitis or uveitis and no evidence of systemic disease, 9 mature horses with no evidence of ocular or systemic disease (negative controls) and 10 mature horses with systemic inflammatory disease and no evidence of ocular disease (positive controls). Blood samples were assayed for concentrations of the acute phase proteins fibrinogen and serum amyloid A. Results: Fibrinogen and serum amyloid A were significantly different in the positive control group compared to the negative control, corneal disease and uveitis groups (P<0.126). There was no significant difference between the negative control, corneal disease and uveitis groups (P<0.001). Conclusions: Ulcerative keratitis and anterior uveitis are not associated with elevated concentrations of the acute phase proteins fibrinogen and serum amyloid A in peripheral blood. Potential relevance: When the clinician is presented with a patient with ocular disease and elevated plasma fibrinogen or serum amyloid A concentrations, a nonocular inflammatory focus should be suspected.     

Usefulness of a Point-of-Care Analyzer to Measure Cardiac Troponin I and D-Dimer Concentrations in Critically Ill Horses With Gastrointestinal Diseases

Point-of-care (POC) systems for the joint measurement of Troponin and D-dimers have not been studied in horses. The aim of this study was to perform the validation of a POC system (AQT90 FLEX) for the measurement of cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and D-dimers in the serum of horses with gastrointestinal diseases. The main objective was to evaluate whether or not this system can distinguish healthy animals from diseased animals. A sample of 33 horses was included in the study: control group (n = 10) and horses with gastrointestinal disorders (n = 21), which were classified according to their outcome in survivors (subgroup A = 9) and nonsurvivors (subgroup B = 12). Considering the diagnosis of the process, ill horses were classified into three groups: inflammatory (I = 7), obstructive (O = 9), and strangulating diseases (S = 5). The clinical usefulness of AQT90 FLEX was validated by the study of linearity, coefficient of variation, and detection limits. Later, concentrations of D-dimers and cTnI were measured. A significant increase in both parameters was detected in ill animals (cTnI: control: 0.014 ± 0.01 μg/mL, survivors: 0.27 ± 0.37 μg/mL, nonsurvivors: 0.60 ± 1.21 μg/mL; D-dimers: control: 104.90 ± 30.82 ng/mL, survivors: 1,217.22 ± 1,213.28 ng/mL, nonsurvivors: 1,613.67 ± 1,426.75 ng/mL), although there were no statistically significant differences in concentrations according to diagnosis and outcome. In conclusion, AQT90 FLEX POC analyzer can be used in horses with gastrointestinal diseases to measure cTnI and D-dimer concentrations. It is a quick, practical, and minimally invasive tool that helps in determining the severity of illness.     

Serum protein changes in grass sickness

Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to compare serum taken from ponies before and during clinical illness confirmed as grass sickness. A consistent rise in the level of haptoglobin was seen in serum from animals which had shown symptoms for more than two days. Serum albumin was also shown to have altered mobility at the onset of clinical disease. Estimation of the haemoglobin-binding capacity confirmed the haptoglobin increase. This haptoglobin has been purified and some of its properties determined. In contrast to the situation in acute inflammatory conditions no other acute-phase proteins increased to a significant extent in grass sickness. It is concluded that the neurotoxin known to be present in sera of animals experiencing acute grass sickness cannot itself be detected by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis but may be bound to serum albumin.     

Dynamics in serum of the inflammatory markers serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin,fibrinogen and alpha2-globulins during induced noninfectious arthritis in the horse

Despite the importance of noninfectious joint diseases in equine medicine, little is known about the acute phase response which may be elicited if the local inflammatory process of noninfectious arthritis is sufficiently strong, Therefore the aim of this study was to monitor the systemic inflammatory response during experimentally-induced noninfectious arthritis by studying the dynamics in serum of the acute phase proteins serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin, fibrinogen and alpha2-globulins. Twenty-four Standardbred horses, age 3-7 years, found healthy on thorough clinical, radiological, haematological and serum biochemical examination, were injected aseptically into the right midcarpal joint with amphotericin B. Blood samples were drawn before induction of arthritis (0 h), and at 8, 16, 24, 36 and 48 h postinduction and then on Days 3, 4, 5 and 15 postinduction. All horses developed lameness with joint effusion and joint heat as well as increased respiratory rate, heart rate and body temperature. The lameness started to decline after 24-36 h and, in most animals, systemic signs disappeared on Day 2 postinjection. The concentration of the acute phase proteins increased following induction of arthritis. The SAA concentrations were higher than baseline concentrations from 16 h postinduction and were maximal at 36-48 h (227 times baseline concentration). The haptoglobin concentrations were higher than baseline concentrations from 24 h and were maximal at 48-96 h (1.14 times baseline concentration). The maximal concentrations of fibrinogen were seen between 36-72 h postinjection and increased on average 0.87 times from baseline concentrations. The fibrinogen concentrations were higher than baseline concentrations from 24 h postinjection. Alpha2-globulins concentrations showed a minor increase and increased 0.55 times from baseline concentrations. The markers had returned to baseline concentrations by Day 15. Our results demonstrate that amphotericin B-induced arthritis in a single joint gives rise to a systemic acute phase response measurable as increased concentrations in serum SAA, haptoglobin, fibrinogen and alpha2-globulins during the first 2 weeks of the condition and, thereby, that such an increase need not be indicative of infectious arthritis. Further research should be aimed at determining whether chronic noninfectious arthritis in the horse gives rise to increased acute phase protein concentrations in serum.     

Serum protein concentrations from clinically healthy horses determined by agarose gel electrophoresis

Background: Serum protein electrophoresis is a useful screening test in equine laboratory medicine. The method can provide valuable information about changes in the concentrations of albumin and α‐, β‐, and γ‐globulins and thereby help characterize dysproteinemias in equine patients. Reference values for horses using agarose gel as a support medium have not been reported. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to establish reference intervals for serum protein concentrations in adult horses using agarose gel electrophoresis and to assess differences between warm‐blooded and heavy draught horses. In addition, the precision of electrophoresis for determining fraction percentages and the detection limit were determined. Methods: Blood samples were obtained from 126 clinically healthy horses, including 105 Thoroughbreds and 21 heavy draught horses of both sexes and ranging from 2 to 20 years of age. The total protein concentration was determined by an automated biuret method. Serum protein electrophoresis was performed using a semi‐automated agarose gel electrophoresis system. Coefficients of variation (CVs) were calculated for within‐run and within‐assay precision. Data from warm‐blooded and draught horses were compared using the Mann–Whitney U test. Results: Within‐run and within‐assay CVs were <5% for all protein fractions. No significant difference was found between warm‐blooded and heavy draught horses and so combined reference intervals (2.5–97.5%) were calculated for total protein (51.0–72.0 g/L), albumin (29.6–38.5 g/L), α₁‐globulin (1.9–3.1 g/L), α₂‐globulin (5.3–8.7 g/L), β₁‐globulin (2.8–7.3g/L), β₂‐globulin (2.2–6.0 g/L), and γ‐globulin (5.8–12.7 g/L) concentrations, and albumin/globulin ratio (0.93–1.65). Conclusion: Using agarose gel as the supporting matrix for serum protein electrophoresis in horses resulted in excellent resolution and accurate results that facilitated standardization into 6 protein fractions.     

Assessment of serum protein electrophoresis for monitoring therapy of naturally acquired equine cyathostomin infections

Serum protein electrophoresis (SPE) has previously been suggested as a means of assessing cyathostomin burdens in horses, although SPE used for that purpose is supported by little evidence. This clinical research report describes a study that objectively evaluated the use of SPE on a population of 38 horses following the administration of different anthelmintics. The population was subdivided into three groups, Groups F, M and P: 7.5 mg/kg bwt fenbendazole was administered to Group F on day -12; on day 0 0.4 mg/kg bwt moxidectin was administered to Group M and 19 mg/kg bwt pyrantel was administered to Group P. Faecal worm egg counts were obtained on days -14, 0 and 10. Groups M and P acted as controls for the Group F faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) in which a high level of benzimidazole resistance was demonstrated. Group F was then used as a control group for the FECRT for both Groups P and M. A high anthelmintic efficacy of moxidectin and pyrantel was detected. SPE was performed on venous blood collected on days 0, 10, 30, 56 and 80. As the cyathostomins infecting the horses had been shown to be highly resistant to fenbendazole, Group F then served as a control group for comparison of any changes in protein fractions. Serum proteins did not vary significantly between groups on any of the sampling dates. No significant changes in serum proteins were observed in any group and no patterns were apparent on qualitative assessment of SPE profiles. SPE was therefore concluded to be an insensitive tool for the monitoring of cyathostomin treatment in horses in a clinical environment.     

Fibrinolytic Activity in Plasma From Horses With Gastrointestinal Diseases: Changes Associated With Diagnosis, Surgery, and Outcome

Plasma fibrinolytic activity was evaluated over 5 consecutive days in 59 horses admitted to the Large Animal Teaching Hospital with acute gastrointestinal diseases. Only horses hospitalized for at least 5 days were included in the study. Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1) were quantitated using standard chromogenic activity assays. Statistical analyses were performed using analysis of variance; differences were considered significant when P < .05. Activity of PAI-1, the primary endogenous inhibitor of fibrinolysis, was significantly increased on hospital days 2, 4, and 5 in horses that died, when compared with those that were discharged from the hospital. Plasma PAI-1 activity was not different at admission, but was significantly increased on hospital days 2 and 3 in horses that underwent surgery, when compared with those that did not, suggesting an acute phase response to surgical intervention. Horses with strangulating intestinal lesions had significantly increased PAI-1 activity on day 3, while PAI-1 activity was significantly greater in horses with inflammatory conditions at the time of admission, when compared with horses with strangulating or nonstrangulating/noninflammatory lesions. Among all horses, PAI-1 activity was significantly higher and tPA activity was significantly lower on day 2 when compared with other hospital days. These results suggest that fibrinolysis is inhibited early in the course of inflammatory gastrointestinal diseases and in response to surgery. In addition, among all horses, the prognosis for survival was poor for those with persistently increased PAI-1 activity, reflecting treatment failure and the loss of hemostatic regulation.     

Training Program Intensity Induces an Acute Phase Response in Clinically Healthy Horses

Physiological and hematochemical changes associated with exercise have been extensively investigated in equine species. It is known that stress elevates circulating levels of acute phase proteins (APPs). This survey evaluated whether horses trained with different training programs exhibit changes in APP levels after exercise event. Twenty Saddle Italian horses (11 geldings and 9 females, 9 ± 1 years old, body weight of 425 ± 35 kg) were divided into two equal groups according to the intensity of training programs they were subjected: group A was subjected to an intense training program, group B was subjected to a moderate training program. At the end of the training period, horses were subjected to a simulated exercise event (show jumping course of 400 m length with 12 obstacles). From horses, blood samples were collected at rest conditions (T_REST) and after 12 and 24 hour from the end of exercise (T_{12 h} and T_{24 h}); the concentration of serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin, albumin, total proteins, iron, and fibrinogen was assessed. The circulating levels of SAA, fibrinogen, and iron were influenced by simulated exercise event (P < .01), starting from 12 hour after the end of exercise, suggesting the onset of an acute phase–like response, and it would seem that training program intensity the horses underwent also affected the degree of response, although only SAA values were significantly different between groups (P < .001). The findings obtained suggest that jumping exercise induces an acute phase response; however, further studies are advocated to better evaluate mechanisms by which exercise activates this response in the athletic horse.     

Application of acute phase protein measurements in veterinary clinical chemistry

The body's early defence in response to trauma, inflammation or infection, the acute phase response, is a complex set of systemic reactions seen shortly after exposure to a triggering event. One of the many components is an acute phase protein response in which increased hepatic synthesis leads to increased serum concentration of positive acute phase proteins. The serum concentration of these acute phase proteins returns to base levels when the triggering factor is no longer present. This paper provides a review of the acute phase proteins haptoglobin, C-reactive protein and serum amyloid A and their possible use as non-specific indicators of health in large animal veterinary medicine such as in the health status surveillance of pigs at the herd level, for the detection of mastitis in dairy cattle and for the prognosis of respiratory diseases in horses.     

Useful life, departure rates and causes in sport horses]

A review of the operational life, attrition and lethality rates, major causes of attrition and death for thoroughbred and standardbred race horses and competition horses is given. Because of the lack of data, it was not possible to supply answers for all the sport disciplines. The operational life in sports for thoroughbred race horses was 3.3 years, for standardbred horses 4.1 and for competition horses 5.5 years. Attrition and lethality rates could be determined only for the thoroughbred race horses. The yearly rates of attrition and lethality were 30% and 2% respectively. The major causes of attrition for thoroughbreds were due to inadequate performance and breeding, for competition horses due to damages of the locomotor, respiratory and gastrointestinal systems. Damage of the locomotor system was by far the most important cause for the death of thoroughbreds while for competition horses it was the gastrointestinal, locomotor and respiratory systems. The available data was not sufficient to make an evaluation of the parameters selected.     

Diagnosis of stomach carcinoma in the horse

In 10 horses, which were referred to the clinic with the suspicion of disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, gastroscopy revealed a gastric tumour. In ten cases the diagnosis of a squamous cell carcinoma was made on the basis of histology of biopsies or autopsy. The tumour always derived from the non-glandulary mucosa. The horses showed various clinical symptoms. All patients had a hypoalbuminemia and a hyperglobulinemia in the serum electrophoresis. This suggests that a gastric tumour can be suspected intra-vitam even without gastroscopy of the patient.     

Inflammatory Response of Healthy Horses Subjected to Small Colon Enterotomy and Treated or Not With Heparin

The acute phase response is a response to injury and depends on the severity of the trauma. Heparin is routinely used for postsurgical treatment of horses to prevent abdominal adhesions; however, its effect on inflammation is unknown. This study aimed to assess systemic inflammatory response of horses subjected to small colon enterotomy and to evaluate heparin effects on postsurgical inflammation. Ten adult horses were subjected to small colon enterotomy and were assigned to a control or a treatment group. Both groups received prophylactic antibiotics and flunixin, and the treatment group received 150 IU/kg heparin subcutaneously after surgery and every 12 hours for five days. WBC counts, peritoneal fluid evaluation, determination of serum and peritoneal haptoglobin (Hp), and serum amyloid A (SAA) were performed before, 12 hours, and 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, and 14 days after enterotomy. Forty-eight hours after surgery, a significant increase in serum Hp was observed in the control group, and SAA concentrations increased significantly in the both groups between 24 hours, 48 hours, and 4 days after surgery. The SAA and serum Hp concentrations produced no significant differences between the groups. Peritoneal Hp increased significantly in the control group 4 days after surgery and was significantly higher in the control group than in the treated group 14 days after surgery. Serum Hp and SAA identified the acute phase response changes faster, however, were not able to identify differences between groups. Peritoneal Hp concentrations identified inflammatory differences between the groups 14 days after surgery; the difference suggests that heparin may act decreasing inflammation.     

Activin A as a novel biomarker of equine inflammatory abdominal disease: preliminary findings

This study evaluated the inflammatory mediator activin A in horses with acute abdominal disease and compared this putative novel biomarker with serum amyloid A (SAA). Thirty-three adult horses referred for evaluation of acute abdominal disease were grouped into three lesion categories, non-strangulating, strangulating or inflammatory. Eleven healthy adult horses served as controls. Serum activin-A was significantly increased in animals with inflammatory or strangulating lesions compared with controls. Horses with non-strangulating, strangulating or inflammatory lesions had significantly elevated SAA concentrations. Activin A, along with other biomarkers, may be useful in monitoring inflammation in cases of acute abdominal disease in horses. Further validation is warranted to determine the utility of this biomarker in evaluating the effectiveness of novel anti-inflammatory treatments for equine colic and endotoxaemia.