Zoonotic disease awareness in animal shelter workers and volunteers and the effect of training

Animal shelter workers are a vulnerable population whose exposure to zoonotic disease may be greater compared with the general population. The aim of this project was to identify baseline zoonotic disease knowledge of animal shelter workers and to develop and evaluate zoonotic disease awareness training. Ten animal shelters in six western states were randomly selected. One hundred and eleven trainees were evaluated by identical pre- and post-training tests. Training topics included identification of clinical signs, susceptible species, and transmission of disease to animals and to humans. Zoonotic diseases included rabies, plague, leptospirosis, internal parasites, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and salmonella. A statistically significant difference in overall total scores between pre-test (58.5%) and post-test (69.5%) was observed (P = 0.0001). No association was observed between test scores and length of time working in animal shelters, or with the participants' role at the animal shelter. Overall test scores were raised by 11%. The lowest baseline levels of knowledge were found with leptospirosis, MRSA, plague and rabies, emerging diseases with increasing prevalence and high consequence. Zoonotic disease awareness training is a valuable service to animal shelters. In the current study, training was modestly successful in transferring short-term knowledge to animal shelter workers. To understand and evaluate the effectiveness of training completely, observable or measureable behaviours should be compared before and after training. Long-term assessment with measureable outcomes is needed.     

Factors associated with rabies vaccination of dog shelter staff in the United States

US animal shelters house and care for dogs with unknown medical histories. Such unknown medical backgrounds pose concern for zoonotic transmission of diseases to the shelter staff. One important zoonotic exposure is to rabies virus which is almost always fatal after the onset of symptoms. The objective of this study was to identify the characteristics of dog shelters associated with the probability that the shelter had a policy to vaccinate shelter personnel against rabies. Five states with an established shelter registry were selected from each geographic region of the United States. A list of shelters within those states was developed from the registry list, through Internet searches and comparisons with other known lists. At least two forms of direct communication were used to ensure that humane organizations met the study definition of a dog shelter. In total, 342 of 461 (73%) shelters that met the study definition were visited by a team of students. Forty‐two of 332 (13%) shelters responding to the question required staff to be vaccinated against rabies. Logistic regression was utilized to test shelter characteristics for association with the probability that they have a rabies vaccination policy for shelter staff. Municipally funded shelters were more likely to vaccinate staff for rabies than shelters funded privately (OR = 3.0, 95% CI = 1.40–6.39). These results demonstrate that shelter funding source may influence rabies control programmes in shelters.     

Environmental sampling for Salmonella spp. in Colorado animal shelters

Salmonella enterica is an important zoonotic agent and nosocomial infections and epidemics have occurred in animal facilities. The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of Salmonella in the environment in animal shelters. From 12 to 25 samples were taken from each shelter to represent environmental contamination. Samples were collected from surfaces in areas used by animals and in public access areas including animal receiving rooms, kennels, paediatric wards, treatment, visitation rooms, isolation, euthanasia, outdoor runs and play areas, reception rooms, animal transport vehicles, offices, break rooms and restrooms. Samples were tested for Salmonella and compared within shelters to identify high- and low-risk areas; and between shelters to identify differences in environmental contamination by geographical location, infection control policies, and shelter size characteristics. Twenty-eight per cent of sampled Colorado shelters had environmental Salmonella contamination. Two regions in the eastern 1/3 of the state had prevalences of 30% and 100%. Within-shelter sample prevalence ranged from 0 to 100%. Results of this study indicate that animal shelters can be frequently contaminated with Salmonella spp., a variety of Salmonella species may be present, contamination can be widespread within a facility and recovered isolates may harbour antibiotic resistance The findings from this study may influence and help focus educational policy on issues of infection control and zoonotic disease awareness in animal shelters.     

Rabies preexposure vaccination among veterinarians and at-risk staff

OBJECTIVE: To measure rabies preexposure vaccination rate and identify factors potentially associated with lack of vaccination among veterinarians and at-risk staff. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. STUDY POPULATION: At-risk veterinary medical association (VMA) members, their staff members, and animal shelter and wildlife rehabilitation center personnel located in a California county. PROCEDURE: A questionnaire was mailed to VMA members and managers of animal shelters and wildlife rehabilitation centers. Respondents were requested to provide data on vaccination history and potential factors associated with vaccination status for themselves and their at-risk staff members. Vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals were compared by use of univariate and logistic regression analyses to identify factors associated with vaccination status. RESULTS: Fifty-eight percent (79/137) of persons who received questionnaires responded; 74 were eligible for the study. Respondents provided data for 47.6% (219/460) of their staff members. The vaccination rate was greater among respondents (85.1 %) than among their staff members (17.5%). Among staff members, age and duration of employment were significantly associated with vaccination status. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A large proportion of at-risk staff members working in veterinary clinics, animal shelters, and wildlife rehabilitation centers in the study area did not receive rabies preexposure vaccination per the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's published recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). The cost of the preexposure vaccine series may be a barrier, particularly for young employees who are commonly short-term, part-time, or volunteer workers. Efforts are needed to increase awareness of the ACIP recommendations and to increase access to vaccination through agencies such as public health clinics.     

Survey on giardiosis in shelter dog populations

Faecal samples from 183 dogs living in three different shelters in the Rome metropolitan area were randomly collected and examined for the prevalence of giardiosis. Giardia infections were detected by a commercially available ELISA test (ProspecT Giardia Microplate Assay). Overall prevalence was 55.2%. Prevalence rates in single shelters were 74.3, 35.5, and 20.9%, respectively. Using multivariate analysis, no association was found between Giardia-positivity and shelter or sex, breed, or diarrhoea. Giardia-positive dogs were more likely to be younger than 5-year-old (odds ratio [OR] = 2.87; 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 1.07-7.77; p = 0.038), living together (OR = 2.58; 95% CI: 1.12-5.93; p = 0.026), and fed commercial wet food, both alone and combined with dry food (OR = 5.67; 95% CI: 1.59-20.24; p = 0.008). Correlation between Giardia infection and type of food has not been previously reported in dogs. Possible use of the ELISA test for detection of Giardia infection in dogs and zoonotic implications are discussed.     

酸化水消毒及在警犬健康保障中的应用前景

科学消毒是预防和控制传染病的有效途径。警犬同样易受到各种病原的侵袭,多年来传染病的防控是警犬健康保障工作的重要内容。酸化水又称酸性氧化电位水,使用酸化水消毒是一种高效、安全、简便的消毒方法,在医疗卫生、食品加工、饮食行业等领域广泛使用,但在动物疫病预防方面尚属起步阶段,在警犬疾病防控工作中有较大开发与利用空间。论文就消毒对警犬健康保障的重要性、传统消毒方法、酸化水的制备及应用,以及酸化水在警犬饲养、训练、实战和大规模集结中的应用前景等内容进行论述,以期为警犬疾病防控和相关工作人员提供参考。     

Experts' Perceptions on China's Capacity to Manage Emerging and Re‐emerging Zoonotic Diseases in an Era of Climate Change

Zoonotic diseases transmitted by arthropods and rodents are a major public health concern in China. However, interventions in recent decades have helped lower the incidence of several diseases despite the country's large, frequently mobile population and socio‐economic challenges. Increasing globalization, rapid urbanization and a warming climate now add to the complexity of disease control and prevention and could challenge China's capacity to respond to threats of emerging and re‐emerging zoonoses. To investigate this notion, face‐to‐face interviews were conducted with 30 infectious disease experts in four cities in China. The case study diseases under discussion were malaria, dengue fever and haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome, all of which may be influenced by changing meteorological conditions. Data were analysed using standard qualitative techniques. The study participants viewed the current disease prevention and control system favourably and were optimistic about China's capacity to manage climate‐sensitive diseases in the future. Several recommendations emerged from the data including the need to improve health literacy in the population regarding the transmission of infectious diseases and raising awareness of the health impacts of climate change amongst policymakers and health professionals. Participants thought that research capacity could be strengthened and human resources issues for front‐line staff should be addressed. It was considered important that authorities are well prepared in advance for outbreaks such as dengue fever in populous subtropical areas, and a prompt and coordinated response is required when outbreaks occur. Furthermore, health professionals need to remain skilled in the identification of diseases for which incidence is declining, so that re‐emerging or emerging trends can be rapidly identified. Recommendations such as these may be useful in formulating adaptation plans and capacity building for the future control and prevention of climate‐sensitive zoonotic diseases in China and neighbouring countries.     

Serological survey of vector-borne zoonotic pathogens in pet cats and cats from animal shelters and feral colonies

Although cats and their arthropod parasites can sometimes be important sources of zoonotic diseases in humans, the extent of exposure among various cat populations to many potential zoonotic agents remains incompletely described. In this study, 170 domestic cats living in private homes, feral cat colonies, and animal shelters from California and Wisconsin were evaluated by serology to determine the levels of exposure to a group of zoonotic vector-borne pathogens. Serological positive test results were observed in 17.2% of cats for Rickettsia rickettsii, 14.9% for R akari, 4.9% for R typhi, 11.1% for R felis, and 14.7% for Bartonella henselae. Although vector-borne disease exposure has been documented previously in cats, the evaluation of multiple pathogens and diverse cat populations simultaneously performed here contributes to our understanding of feline exposure to these zoonotic pathogens.     

Zoological medicine and public health

Public-health issues regarding zoological collections and free-ranging wildlife have historically been linked to the risk of transmission of zoonotic diseases and accidents relating to bites or injection of venom or toxins by venomous animals. It is only recently that major consideration has been given worldwide to the role of the veterinary profession in contributing to investigating zoonotic diseases in free-ranging wildlife and integrating the concept of public health into the management activities of game preserves and wildlife parks. At the veterinary undergraduate level, courses in basic epidemiology, which should include outbreak investigation and disease surveillance, but also in population medicine, in infectious and parasitic diseases (especially new and emerging or re-emerging zoonoses), and in ecology should be part of the core curriculum. Foreign diseases, especially dealing with zoonotic diseases that are major threats because of possible agro-terrorism or spread of zoonoses, need to be taught in veterinary college curricula. Furthermore, knowledge of the principles of ecology and ecosystems should be acquired either during pre-veterinary studies or, at least, at the beginning of the veterinary curriculum. At the post-graduate level, master's degrees in preventive veterinary medicine, ecology and environmental health, or public health with an emphasis on infectious diseases should be offered to veterinarians seeking job opportunities in public health and wildlife management.     

A Survey of Canadian Public Health Personnel Regarding Knowledge,Practice and Education of Zoonotic Diseases

Zoonoses, diseases that can spread under natural conditions between humans and other animals, are become a major public health concern in many countries including Canada. In Canada, investigations of zoonotic disease incidents are often conducted by public health inspectors (PHIs). However, little is known about PHIs' knowledge of transmission of zoonotic pathogens, their perceptions of zoonotic disease importance or their education regarding zoonotic diseases. The objective of this study was therefore to assess the knowledge, perceptions and education of Canadian PHIs regarding zoonotic diseases. Data were collected from December 2008–January 2009 using an internet‐based survey distributed to members of the Canadian Institute of Public Health Inspectors national listserv. Responses were received from 229 PHIs in four provinces, with a response rate of approximately 20%. The majority of respondents reported at least 10 years of experience in the public health sector, 80% (181/225) were in frontline positions, and 62% (137/222) were routinely involved in investigations of infectious diseases. Two‐thirds believed that the importance of zoonotic diseases with regards to public health would increase in the next 5 years. Whilst most respondents were able to correctly identify animals capable of directly transmitting common zoonotic pathogens, there were gaps in knowledge, particularly with regard to rabies and transmission of gastrointestinal pathogens by companion animals. PHIs tended to feel that their training on zoonotic diseases prior to working as PHIs was deficient in some areas, or left some room for improvement. Their responses also suggested that there is a need for improvement in both the quantity and the quality of continuing education on zoonotic diseases. In particular, less than one‐third of PHIs received ongoing continuing education regarding zoonotic diseases, and of those that did, nearly two‐thirds rated the quantity and quality as only fair.     

Safety issues in the exotic pet practice.

Small animal practitioners are well versed in the potential zoonoses from dogs and cats. Although these account for the vast majority of documented cases of zoonotic disease in humans, there are documented as well as potential zoonotic diseases that the nontraditional companion animal is capable of transmitting. This article is a compilation of potential disease risks to veterinarians, staff, and owners of nontraditional companion animals. In addition, the article may serve as a training tool for veterinary practices.     

Applied animal behavior and obedience training course: a model for veterinary curricula

Animal behavior problems often have detrimental effects on the relationships between pets and their owners and are one of the most frequently given reasons for canine relinquishment. The stressful environment of animal shelters can exacerbate behavior problems; yet most shelters do not have the staff necessary to address this issue adequately. Veterinary students may provide an untapped resource for solving this dilemma. As a service component of the curriculum, Veterinary schools can join with local humane societies to expose students to behavioral issues and concurrently build relationships within the community and perhaps even offer shelter animals a better chance of successful adoption. The following paper describes a "hands-on" undergraduate animal behavior and obedience training psychology course, created as a model to address these needs.     

Zoonotic disease concerns in animal-assisted therapy and animal visitation programs

A survey was done of 150 systematically selected United States animal care agencies and 74 Canadian humane societies to determine the prevalence of animal assisted therapy (AAT) programs; concerns about, and experience with, zoonotic diseases; and precautions taken to prevent zoonotic disease transmission. Of the 69 US agencies and 49 Canadian societies that reported having AAT programs, 94% used dogs and/or cats in their programs, 28% used rabbits, 15% used “pocket pets” (hamsters, gerbils, mice, guinea pigs), and 10% used birds (excluding poultry). About two-thirds of the programs were involved with the elderly in nursing homes, about a quarter of them worked with schools, and a quarter worked with hospitals. Half of the respondents had concerns about zoonotic disease control. Rabies, ringworm, and external parasitism were the most commonly cited zoonotic diseases of concern. Few concerns were based on actual experience. Fewer than half of the programs consulted a health professional about prevention of zoonotic diseases. Only 10% of the respondents reported having printed guidelines about the prevention of zoonotic disease transmission. Practising veterinarians are encouraged to make their expertise available to local AAT programs.     

Main risk factors for Salmonella-infections in pigs in north-western Germany

Salmonellosis is one of the major zoonotic, food-borne diseases, among others, caused by pig derived food products. As infected pigs are one of the main sources of the introduction of the bacterium into the food chain, scientific research in the last years has focussed on identifying risk factors for infection as well as developing mitigation strategies on this level of production. In order to update the knowledge of the German situation by incorporating recent changes in the German pig industry, a case-control study was set up to identify the key contributing risk factors for farms located in the western part of Lower Saxony, the region with the highest pig density in Germany. Based on an extensive and systematic literature search, a comprehensive questionnaire with 302 questions concerning such topics as personnel hygiene, animal management, biosecurity, feeding management as well as cleaning and disinfection routines was utilized in a face-to-face interview on 104 case and 67 control farms. Within a stepwise forward selection process the preliminary identified factors were grouped contextually, associations between variables were calculated and multivariable logistic regression models were conducted. Identified risk factors were: the moving of individual animals during the fattening period (OR 5.3, CI 95% 1.35-20.35), not having a separate transporter for different age groups (OR 11.4, CI 95% 1.94-66.18) and pigs having contact to other animals (OR 4.3, CI 95% 1.39-12.96). The following factors were identified as being protective: not cleaning the transporter (OR 0.2, CI 95% 0.05-0.72) and not having clean boots available (OR 0.2, CI 95% 0.07-0.64). While this study was able to identify some factors which influence the Salmonella-infection of a herd, overall the process of analysis showed that the control of Salmonella on farm is due to a series of individual factors and therefore remains extremely complex.     

对高寒牧区畜间布鲁氏菌病防控对策的思考

布鲁氏菌病是危害多种动物和人类的传染病,也是我国重点防控的人畜共患传染病之一。受市场等因素调节,牛羊反刍动物数量增加,且动物及其产品流通频繁,动物疫病发生风险加大,许多地方畜间布病呈上升趋势。为切实加强畜间布病防控工作,肃南县按照省、市业务部门的防控要求,结合当地高寒牧区畜间布病流行实际,制订防控工作计划,全面落实动物疫病主动监测、定点检疫、消毒灭源、阳性畜扑杀及无害化处理综合防治措施,取得一定成效。     

Investigation and control of an outbreak of salmonellosis caused by multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhimurium in a population of hospitalized horses

An outbreak of salmonellosis in a population of hospitalized horses resulted in the closure of a teaching hospital for a period of 10 weeks. Fecal samples were collected from suspected cases and cultured for Salmonella. Salmonella isolates were characterized using antimicrobial susceptibility testing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and phage typing. Thirty-three cases of infection by a multidrug-resistant strain of S. typhimurium were detected. The index case was admitted on 26 August 1999. Fifteen (45%) cases occurred between April and June 2000. PFGE results suggested that this strain of S. typhimurium might have been introduced into the hospital environment by a foal presenting with diarrhea. The hospital was closed on June 13, and intensive environmental cleaning and disinfection were completed. Enforcement of infectious disease control protocols in hospitals and environmental and patient surveillance is needed to prevent outbreaks of salmonellosis.     

Diagnostic, treatment, and prevention protocols for canine heartworm infection in animal sheltering agencies

The high prevalence of heartworm infection in shelter dogs creates a dilemma for shelter managers, who frequently operate with insufficient funding, staffing, and expertise to comply with heartworm guidelines developed for owned pet dogs. The purpose of this study was to survey canine heartworm management protocols used by 504 animal sheltering agencies in the endemic states of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Mississippi. Open-admission shelters, which tended to be larger and more likely to perform animal control functions, were less likely (41%) to test all adult dogs than were limited-admission shelters (80%), which tended to be smaller non-profit humane agencies, and foster programs (98%) based out of private residences. Open-admission shelters were more likely to euthanize infected dogs (27%) or to release them without treatment (39%), whereas limited-admission shelters and foster programs were more likely to provide adulticide therapy (82% and 89%, respectively). Of the 319 agencies that treated infections, 44% primarily used a standard two-dose melarsomine protocol, and 35% primarily used a three-dose split-treatment melarsomine protocol. Long-term low-dose ivermectin was the most common treatment used in 22% of agencies. Open-admission shelters were less likely (35%) to provide preventive medications for all dogs than were limited-admission shelters (82%) and foster programs (97%). More agencies used preventives labeled for monthly use in dogs (60%) than ivermectin products labeled for livestock (38%). The most common reason diagnostic testing and preventive medication was not provided was cost. These results indicate a lack of protocol uniformity among agencies and insufficient resources to identify, treat, and prevent infection. Sheltering agencies and companion animal health industries should develop guidelines that are feasible for use in sheltering agencies and provide improved access to preventive and treatment strategies for management of Dirofilaria immitis.     

Barrier precautions, isolation protocols, and personal hygiene in veterinary hospitals.

Because nosocomial and zoonotic diseases are inherent and ever-present risks in veterinary hospitals, proactive policies should be in place to reduce the risk of sporadic cases and outbreaks. Policies should ideally be put in place before disease issues arise, and policies should be effectively conveyed to all relevant personnel. Written policies are required for practical and liability reasons and should be reviewed regularly. Although no infection control program can eliminate disease concerns, proper implementation of barrier precautions and isolation can reduce the exposure of hospitalized animals and hospital personnel to infectious agents. Appropriate personal hygiene, particularly hand hygiene, can assist in the prevention of disease transmission when pathogens bypass barriers and are able to contact personnel. Veterinary hospitals have moral, professional, and legal requirements to provide a safe workplace and to reduce the risks to hospitalized patients. Based on experience in the human medical field and on the continual emergence of new infectious diseases, infection control challenges can only be expected to increase in the future. Regular reassessment of protocols based on ongoing research and clinical experiences is required.     

The role of wildlife in transboundary animal diseases

This paper identifies some of the more important diseases at the wildlife-livestock interface and the role wildlife plays in disease transmission. Domestic livestock, wildlife and humans share many similar pathogens. Pathogens of wild or domestic animal origin that can cause infections in humans are known as zoonotic organisms and the converse are termed as anthroponotic organisms. Seventy-seven percent of livestock pathogens and 91% of domestic carnivore pathogens are known to infect multiple hosts, including wildlife. Understanding this group of pathogens is critical to public health safety, because they infect a wide range of hosts and are most likely to emerge as novel causes of infection in humans and domestic animals. Diseases at the wildlife-livestock interface, particularly those that are zoonotic, must be an area of focus for public health programs and surveillance for emerging infectious diseases. Additionally, understanding wildlife and their role is a vital part of understanding the epidemiology and ecology of diseases. To do this, a multi-faceted approach combining capacity building and training, wildlife disease surveillance, wildlife-livestock interface and disease ecology studies, data and information sharing and outbreak investigation are needed.