Local knowledge and management of simpukng (forest gardens) among the Dayak people in East Kalimantan,Indonesia

Among the Dayak people in East Kalimantan, simpukng (“forest gardens”) are an important component of their traditional farming systems. Simpukng is managed secondary forests in which selected species of fruits, rattan, bamboo, timber and other plants are planted. While most are owned by families and passed down from one generation to the next, some are managed on a communal basis. Complex customary Dayak rules exist that control the use and inheritance of these forests that help to avoid over-exploitation of resources. There is clear gender division of labour among Dayak in the management of simpukng that provide a range of products – for household consumption and sale and for customary rituals – fruits, vegetables, medicines, fire wood, honey, rattan, bamboos, and timber. Local knowledge about the more highly valued species are discussed. These indigenous forest garden systems are currently under threat from large-scale mining and logging activities; conflicts between local and external agencies are unfortunately frequent. This paper examines the development and management of simpukng in four Dayak villages in East Kalimantan and their implications on sustainable management of natural resources, with particular emphasis on the role of local knowledge of some of the more highly valued species and the current challenges faced by these communities in maintaining their traditional agroforest management practices.     

The challenge of information service development for private forest owners: The Estonia and Finland cases

This paper investigates forest ownership objectives and the need for information among Estonian and Finnish private forest owners based on two surveys. The motivation for the analysis is the fragmenting private forest ownership in Europe. The broad lines of ownership objectives are found to be similar in both countries, and can be described under the dimensions of economic objectives, intangible values, and products and activities provided by forests. In both countries, economic and intangible objectives are considered important at the same time. Thus forest owners can be described as multi-objective. The economic objectives are ranked as somewhat more important than non-economic objectives in Estonia, but not in Finland. Estonian forest owners most strongly emphasise information about legal and economic matters, including forest taxation and forest health issues, while Finnish forest owners emphasise information about wood markets and forest taxation. Differences between the two countries may be related to private ownership being relatively new in Estonia. Some generalisations may be drawn for European forest policy. Overall, private forest owners need both information about economic issues and personal advice on how to manage forests with regard to their individual and multiple objectives. Generally, personal advice may be concentrated on the complicated and most important themes, while information can mostly be provided via written or electronic channels. Particularly in countries where private forestry is new, there is a need for personal advice on legislative and economic matters. As a conclusion, it is suggested that efficient allocation of resources and development of information services require regular analysis of private forest ownership, and segmenting private forest owners according to their objectives and information needs.     

Recovery of boreal forest structures near abandoned villages in Western White Sea Karelia,Russia

Regeneration of natural forest structures and dead wood has a key role in the long-term maintenance of biodiversity in most parts of the boreal zone. In order to obtain benchmarks for practical dead wood management rapidly, we utilised unintended historical experiments in land use by studying the recovery of forests surrounding abandoned villages along 2.5-km transects in NW Russia. The signs of past human forest use declined as a function of distance from villages. We found that the closest forests were 130 yr old or younger and contained very few elements typical of natural forests. Forests at a distance of between 1 and 1.5 km were older than 150 yr but showed marks of selective cuttings and had a less complete continuum of dead wood than forests that were 2–2.5 km from the villages. The most remote stands, which were generally older than 200 yr, predominantly had no signs of past forest use and had the most diverse dead wood composition. Our study shows that full recovery of the dead wood continuum in middle boreal forests is a slow process and also that less intensive past forest use can have a significant effect on the dead wood continuum.     

A lack of large-diameter logs and snags characterises dead wood patterns in Irish forests

Dead wood is an important component of forest ecosystems and volumes vary depending on forest age, management intensity and productivity. This is the first large-scale study to quantify dead wood in Irish forests and to compare them to forests in other locations. We measured the volume and size distribution of logs, the density and size distribution of snags and the volume of dead wood contained in stumps in Oak (Quercus spp.) and Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) forests and in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) plantations throughout Ireland. We also assigned each log, snag and stump to one of three decay classes (intact, part-rotted and well-rotted). We found no significant difference in log volume between any of the forest types. The majority (>90%) of logs were less than 20 cm in diameter, and large logs (>40 cm diameter) were scarce. We found a relatively high density of snags in all forest types but, as in the case of logs, over 90% of snags were <20 cm DBH and large snags (>40 cm DBH) were rare. The volume of dead wood contained in stumps was significantly higher in plantations than in Oak or Ash forests as a result of thinning and harvesting. Most logs and snags were moderately decayed but, in plantations, most stumps were intact. Log volume and the size of logs and snags were considerably lower than in old-growth forests in other regions. These patterns may reflect historical use of Irish forests for coppice and timber production. Management for biodiversity should aim to accelerate dead wood accumulation to increase the frequency of large-diameter logs and snags. Although management seeking to replicate the dead wood volumes of old-growth forests is ideal, it may be unrealistic in the short term.     

Floristic diversity and carbon stocks in the periphery of Deng–Deng National Park,Eastern Cameroon

Carbon is continuously being removed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis and stored in carbon pools(live,dead,and soil carbon)of forest ecosystems.However,carbon stock in dead wood and of trees with diameters at breast height(dbh)between 5 and 10 cm is often not considered in many studies carried out in the Congo Basin Forest.The relationship between tree diversity,life-forms and carbon stocks has received little attention.This study was carried out on the outskirts of Deng Deng National Park(DDNP)to determine tree diversity(dominant families,species richness and Shannon index),assess carbon stocks in the five carbon compartments(living tree,understory,fine roots,dead wood and litter)as well as to analyze the relationship between(1)carbon stocks and tree diversity;and,(2)between carbon stock and life-forms.The Shannon index of trees≥10 cm dbh ranged from 2.6 in riparian forest to 4.3 in secondary forest;and for the tree between 5 and 10 cm,it ranged to 1.56 in riparian forest to 3.68 in the secondary forest.The study site housed 16 species,7 genera and 3 families which are only found in trees of dbh between 5 and 10 cm.The average total carbon stock of the five compartments varied from 200.1 t ha-1 in forest residues to 439.1 t ha-1 in secondary forest.Dead wood carbon stock varied from 1.2 t ha-1 in riparian forests to 12.51t ha-1 in agroforests.The above ground carbon stocks for trees with diameter between 5 and 10 cm varied from 0.7 t ha-1 in young fallow fields to 5.02 t ha-1 in old secondary forests.This study reveals a low but positive correlation between species richness and total carbon stocks,as well as a significant positive relationship between life-forms and total carbon stocks.The findings highlight the need for more data concerning carbon content of dead wood,carbon of trees≥5 cm<10 cm dbh and the relationship between carbon stocks and tree diversity from other areas of the Congo Basin for a good understanding of the contribution of tropical forests to climate change mitigation.     

Dead wood in European beech (Fagus sylvatica) forest reserves

Data were analysed on the volume of dead wood in 86 beech forest reserves, covering most of the range of European beech forests. The mean volume was 130 m³/ha and the variation among reserves was high, ranging from almost nil to 550 m³/ha. The volume depended significantly on forest type, age since reserve establishment and volume of living wood. More dead wood was found in montane (rather than lowland/submontane) reserves, longer-established reserves (time since designation) and reserves with higher volumes of living wood.

On average, fallen dead wood contributed more to the total dead wood volume than standing dead wood. The percentage of dead wood that was standing was almost twice as high in montane than in lowland/submontane forest reserves (45% versus 25%). The volume of dead wood at selected sites changed considerably over time. The fluctuations were significantly higher in lowland/submontane than montane reserves, possibly connected with differences in the disturbance regimes and especially damage caused by windstorms. In NW Europe, the blow down of formerly managed, even-aged stands led to extraordinary high volumes of dead wood shortly after reserve establishment.

The implications for forest management and biodiversity conservation are discussed. An increase in dead wood volumes must be carried out in accordance with the local/regional forest type and disturbance regime. Thus, in order to fulfil the requirements of as many wood-depending organisms as possible, it is important to preserve not only larger amounts of dead wood, but also dead wood of different types and dimensions as well as securing a long-term continuity of dead wood.     

Targets for maintenance of dead wood for biodiversity conservation based on extinction thresholds

Abstract

Forestry decreases the amount of dead wood, thereby threatening the persistence of many saproxylic (wood-living) organisms. This article discusses how targets for efforts to maintain and restore dead wood in managed forest landscapes should be defined. Several studies suggest extinction thresholds for saproxylic organisms. However, because the thresholds differ among species, the relationship between species richness and habitat amount at the local scale is probably described by a smoothly increasing curve without any distinct threshold. The most demanding species require amounts of dead wood that are virtually impossible to reach in managed forests. This means that unmanaged protected forests are needed. In managed forests, conservation efforts should focus on the landscape scale and on certain types of dead wood, but it is impossible to come up with any particular amount of dead wood that is desirable at the forest stand level.     

Potential contributions of forestry and wood use to climate change mitigation in Japan

By considering trade-offs and complementarity between carbon removal from the atmosphere by forests and emission reduction by wood use, we developed a forest-sector carbon integrated model for Japan. We discuss mitigation measures for Japan based on model projections. The integrated model included the forest model and the wood use model. Based on three scenarios (baseline, moderate increase, and rapid increase) of harvesting and wood use, the integrated model projected mitigation effects including carbon removal by forests and emission reduction through the wider use of wood, until 2050. Results indicate that forests will not become a source of net carbon emissions under the three scenarios considered. The baseline scenario is most effective for mitigating climate change, for most periods. However, the sum total of carbon removal in forests and carbon emission reductions by wood use under the rapid increase scenario exceeded the one of the moderate increase scenario after 2043. This was because of strong mitigation activities: promoting replanting, using new high-yield varieties, and wood use. The results also indicated that increases in emission reduction due to greater wood use compensated for 67.9 % of the decrease of carbon removal in 2050, for the rapid increase scenario. The results show that carbon removal in forests is most important in the short term because of the relative youth of the planted forests in Japan, and that mitigation effects by material and energy substitution may become greater over the longer term.     

Dynamics of wood recruitment in streams of the northeastern US

Wood is an important component of forested stream ecosystems, and stream restoration efforts often incorporate large wood. In most cases, however, stream restoration projects are implemented without information regarding the amount of wood that historically occurred or the natural rates of wood recruitment. This study uses a space-for-time analysis to quantify large wood loading to 28 streams in the northeastern US with a range of in-stream and riparian forest characteristics. We document the current volume and frequency of occurrence of large wood in streams with riparian forests varying in their stage of stand development as well as stream size and gradient. Linear models relating stream wood characteristics to stream geomorphic and forest characteristics were compared using Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) model selection. The AIC analysis indicated that the volume and frequency of large wood and wood accumulations (wood jams) in streams was most closely associated with the age of the dominant canopy trees in the riparian forest (best models: log₁₀(large wood volume (m³ 100 m⁻¹)) = (0.0036 × stand age) − 0.2281, p < 0.001, r² = 0.80; and large wood frequency (number per 100 m) = (0.1326 × stand age) + 7.3952, p < 001, r² = 0.63). Bankfull width was an important factor accounting for wood volume per unit area (m³ ha⁻¹) but not the volume of wood per length of stream (100 m⁻¹). The empirical models developed in this study were unsuccessful in predicting wood loading in other regions, most likely due to difference in forest characteristics and the legacy of forest disturbance. However, these models may be applicable in other streams in the northeastern US or in streams with comparable riparian forests, underlying geology, and disturbance regimes—factors that could alter long-term wood loading dynamics. Our results highlight the importance of understanding region-specific processes when planning stream restoration and stream management projects.     

森林生态系统历史变迁的经济学解释

人类经济的发展从来就是用相对丰富的资源替代相对稀缺的资源.从采集渔猎,到刀耕火种,最后进入永久农业的过程,从经济学角度分析就是在技术不断更新下人造资本取代自然资本的过程.历史上一直是原始林被次生林和农地取代,只是在近百年来,许多国家和地区相继出现林地取代农地的现象.人工林也成为木材生产的主要来源,同时还相继出现许多专门为人类提供生态服务的森林.森林变迁主要原因是农业技术革新和人口变化导致农产品、林产品以及森林资源生态服务的相对价值变化的结果.本文用美国、新西兰以及中国的海南岛为例来验证这一原理,从经济学的角度提出对未来森林生态系统的展望.     

Wood transportation machine replacement using goal programming

ABSTRACT

Farm tractor?+?trailers play a key role in wood transportation after forests are logged. Despite of the fact that a forwarder is a forestry vehicle that carries felled logs for shorter distances off the ground, tractors are still used in some forest areas of the world, such as the Hyrcanian forest in northern Iran. This study was conducted to investigate the possibility of using both the light forwarder and forestry trailer instead of a farm tractor?+?trailer in wood transportation. The optimal machine option for wood transportation is determined using goal programming model in the study area. In this paper, multi-objective goals (such as economic, operational, environmental and ergonomic) were considered. The results showed that considering only the economic goal, the contractor could save up to 44% in costs by purchasing and replacing a forestry trailer with a 2-wheel trailer attached to the farm tractor. In addition, considering various goals, a light forwarder could be selected as the optimal machine. Currently, the most important objectives of all forest contractors are to establish economic goals and reduce wood transportation costs. Since other goals, such as environmental and ergonomic, are also important; it is suggested that multi-objective approaches should use for planning.     

Climate change and nature conservation in Central European forests: A review of consequences, concepts and challenges

With a predicted rise in average global surface temperature at an unprecedented rate, as well as changes in precipitation and disturbance regimes, climate change will bring forth new challenges for nature conservation in forest ecosystems. Species and habitats to be protected will be affected as well as related concepts and area specific objectives. Climate change impacts are likely to be aggravated by other anthropogenic stresses such as fragmentation, deposition or habitat destruction. To be reliable and effective, current objectives and guidelines of forest conservation need to be reassessed and improved. Our study analyses possible impacts of climate change on forests and identifies key future challenges for nature conservation in forests and ecosystem research. We reviewed 130 papers on climate change impacts on forest ecosystems and species published between 1995 and 2010. The geographical focus of the study is Central Europe. Papers were analysed accounting for direct and indirect impacts of gradual changes as well as stochastic disturbance events in forest ecosystems and their possible consequences for nature conservation.Even though broader aspects of nature conservation (protected areas, biodiversity) are frequently mentioned, little attention is given to forest-specific nature conservation. Particular aspects are insufficiently represented, such as the influence of climate change on different forest succession stages, the development of dead wood volume and quality, responses of secondary broadleaved species, azonal or extrazonal forests as well as ancient woodlands or remnants of historical silvicultural systems. Challenges arise in the context of great uncertainties about future developments. Nature conservation concepts and objectives in forests need to be adapted either within a permanent evaluation process or through the inclusion of further changes a priori, even if they are to some extent unpredictable. In some cases adaptation measures within nature conservation (e.g. adjusting protected areas) may conflict with interests of other stakeholders. Further research, particularly on interrelations between different impacts and the adaptive capacity of current forest ecosystems, associated species and existing genotypes is urgently needed. The scale and complexity of the task at hand calls for the establishment and further strengthening of international research networks.     

Forest owners’ views on storing carbon in their forests

Given the high percentage of private forest ownership in Finland, family forest owners have an important role in mitigating climate change. The study aims to explore Finnish family forest owners’ perceptions on climate change and their opinions on increasing carbon storage in their forests through new kinds of management activities and policy instruments. The data consists of thematic face-to-face interviews among Helsinki metropolitan area forest owners (n?=?15). These city-dwellers were expected to be more aware of and more interested in climate change mitigation than forest owners at large. Forests as carbon fluxes appear to be a familiar concept to most of the forest owners, but carbon storage in their own forests was a new idea. Four types concerning forest owners’ view on storing carbon in their forests could be identified. The Pioneer utilizes forestland versatilely and has already adopted practices to mitigate climate change. The Potential is concerned about climate change, but this is not seen in forest practices applied. The Resistant is generally aware of climate change but sees a fundamental contradiction between carbon storing and wood production. The Indifferent Owner believes that climate change is taking place but does not acknowledge a relation between climate change and the owner’s forests.     

世界约30个国家、地区的森林资源是增长的

把世界约30个森林资源增长的国家、地区分成4类:1.依靠雄厚的森林资源,虽经营粗放,近40年来,资源还是增长了,如苏、美、加;2.荒地造林扩大了森林资源、如新西兰、南非、斯威士兰、英国;3.通过集约经营现有林,欧洲大多数国家、日本的森林蓄积量明显增长;4.以外养内,巧妙利用外国资源,既满足了本地区木材需要,保护了自己的资源,又谋得了进口木材所需的外汇。中国应走哪条路?     

Carbon budget of Ontario's managed forests and harvested wood products, 2001–2100

Forest and harvested wood products (HWP) carbon (C) stocks between 2001 and 2100 for Ontario's managed forests were projected using FORCARB-ON, an adaptation of the U.S. national forest C budget model known as FORCARB2. A fire disturbance module was introduced to FORCARB-ON to simulate the effects of wildfire on C, and some of the model's C pools were re-parameterized using data from Canadian forests. Forest C stocks were estimated using allometric equations that represent the relationships between C and net merchantable volume and forest age based on forest inventory statistics. Other pools were included using results from ecological studies related to forest inventory variables. Data from future forest development projections adopted in approved management plans were used as model input to produce forest C budgets for the province's Crown forest management units. The estimates were extended to other types of managed forests in Ontario: parks, measured fire management zones, and private forest lands. Carbon in HWP was estimated in four categories: wood in use, wood in landfill, wood burned for energy, and C emitted by wood decomposition or burning without energy generation. We projected that the C stocks in Ontario's managed forests and HWP (in use and in landfills) would increase by 465.3 Mt from 2001 to 2100, of which 47.9 Mt is from increases in forest C and 417.4 Mt is from HWP C.     

Non-industrial private forest owners' willingness to supply forest-based energy wood in the South Savo region in Finland

The consumption of energy wood in Finland has increased dramatically since the early 2000s, and the region of South Savo is a bellwether for its usage across the country. This increase is partly due to the national policy of sustainable energy, region's wealth of forests but is also dependent on non-industrial private forest owners (NIPF) deciding to sell energy wood. In this study, a survey with a structured questionnaire was conducted among the NIPFs in the region of South Savo to enlarge the understanding of their willingness to sell energy wood in the future and adopt new approaches to forestry that involves energy wood thinning as well as their current production of energy wood. Moreover, the factors influencing forest owner's motivations relating to energy wood thinning as well as information needs were analysed with multivariate techniques. The results show that almost half of the forest owners in the South Savo region had not sold energy wood. However, forest owners within the region generally had positive attitudes towards selling small-sized energy wood and forestry methods that involve energy wood thinning. Moreover, forest owners' willingness to sell different types of energy wood varied, depending on their background. The study suggests that the increase in supply of energy wood presumes both intensified extension services for forest owners and markets that are better organised than at the moment. The results may also prove beneficial in informing policy-makers regarding which specific target group(s) to focus on when promoting energy wood sales among NIPFs and which aspects of energy wood harvesting and sales to promote.     

The need for planted forests and the example of radiata pine

Ten thousand years ago our 5 million hunter-gatherer ancestors used, over the period of a year, about 200 species of local food items. Now, the nearly 6 billion global population gets 70 percent of its food from nine species of plants, one species of bird, and two species of mammals. This is despite global access to about 50,000 edible plants, as well as large numbers of bird and other animal species. We have concentrated our agricultural efforts on those species which are the most desirable, the most convenient, the most productive, and the most easily stored. Of equal importance, the species must be responsive to both genetic improvement and to management manipulation (i.e., domestication). Globally, very little of our food, except fish, now comes from wild sources.Although we use at least as much wood as we do food, wood supply (which still comes mostly from natural forests) is only now becoming limiting. There are no energy-efficient or environmentally acceptable substitutes for wood. The most likely means we have of satisfying the increasing global demand for wood is to obtain more of our wood from deliberately planted forests. Management of planted forests will increasingly parallel intensive agriculture. One consequence is that, of the 1,000 tree species we now use globally, we may eventually get most of our wood from four or five species. One of these tree species will be radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don). Radiata grows fast on a wide range of sites, has desirable wood properties, and responds well to both genetic improvement and stand management. The planted forest technology for radiata pine is probably the most advanced of any potential tree species. The evolution and success of radiata pine in New Zealand has major implications and lessons for the rest of the world.     

Forest future s by Swedish students – developing a mind mapping method for data collection

Forests are an important natural resource in Sweden. They are used for multiple purposes, for example, providing economic returns from timber harvest, conservation of biodiversity, provision of wild berries and mushrooms and recreational benefits. People’s perceptions of forests and forest use are currently under transformation due to drivers like globalization and urbanization. The aim of this study was to analyse in particular Swedish university student’s visions of future forests using a newly developed survey method based on mind mapping. An online survey with mind map technique was used to collect data from university students in Umeå, northern Sweden. The study focused on features of forests, products derived from forests and activities in forests. The results indicate that students regard ecological, social and economic aspects of forests as important for future forests and the use of them. In particular, the role of non-wood forest products, like berries and mushrooms, as well as recreational features of forests were central to many of the students. The multitude of different visions suggests that forest management decisions of today, directing the future of forests, need to consider the multiple use of forests to be able to satisfy forest preferences also of younger generations.     

实施我国国家竹材储备战略计划的思考

实施国家储备材和储备林制度是保障我国木材安全的重要手段。我国竹林资源丰富，竹子种类与竹林面积均居世界首位，竹材长期以来对维持木材供给平衡发挥了重要作用。然而，竹林作为我国森林资源的重要组成部分，没有被纳入国家储备材或国家储备林计划进行管理。文中在分析我国木材安全现状与形势的基础上，阐述了实施国家竹材储备战略计划的重要意义与保障措施，提出建设竹材储备国家体系，制定长期国家规划，对每年成熟的竹材当年采伐、合理利用、及时储备，对于充分发挥竹资源潜力、促进竹产业高质量发展和保障国家木材安全具有重要意义。     

Drivers of Deforestation in the Lake Victoria Crescent,Uganda

We examined key drivers of deforestation in the Lake Victoria Crescent, Uganda from 1989 to 2009 through a case study approach with a multiple-case design. Nineteen focus groups with local community members and forest officials, archival analysis, and field observation revealed both proximate causes and underlying drivers of deforestation. Proximate causes of deforestation included agricultural expansion into forests, unsustainable extraction of wood forest products, and clearing of forests for nonagricultural uses. Underlying drivers of these proximate causes included policy and institutional factors, economic factors, population growth, technological changes, and changes in culture—each resulting in alienation of local people from forest resources. Alienation of local people, defined as a psychological dispossession of responsibility for forest resources, is posited as the most important underlying driver of deforestation. We discuss the importance of the involvement of local people in the management and maintenance of forests in the Lake Victoria Crescent.