Diversity assessment of useful <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crotalaria</Emphasis> species in India for plant genetic resources management

Assessment of diversity in cultivated and wild useful Crotalaria L. distributed in different phytogeographical regions of India was made. Sites of germplasm collection were depicted on maps to facilitate planning and execution of collection and conservation programmes. In the present communication, information on useful and potential species of Crotalaria in India has also been documented for widening their scope in plant genetic resources management.     

The distribution of cave-dwelling bats and conservation status of underground habitats in Northwestern Turkey

The distribution and abundance of cave-dwelling bats were investigated in the Thrace region of northwest Turkey. Data were collected in two periods, January-March and April-May 2001, from 32 underground sites, 25 of which had not been surveyed previously. Approximately 76,000 bats representing 13 species were recorded. The most abundant species were Miniopterus schreibersii, Rhinolophus euryale, Myotis myotis/blythii, Myotis capaccinii, and Rhinolophus ferrumequinum. The roosts were evaluated for their conservation importance. The most important sites in Turkish Thrace are Dupnisa and Koyunbaba. The Dupnisa Cave serves as a hibernaculum to approximately 28,000 bats representing five species. The Koyunbaba Cave is a nursery roost to approximately 23,000 bats of six species. Presently, none of the caves in the region has adequate protection and some bat populations are under serious threat.     

The Aragon region of the Pyrenees—A stronghold for birds of prey in Europe

The importance of the Aragon region of the Pyrenees in northern Spain for birds of prey is discussed. During field observations in the summers of 1979 and 1982, 19 species of bird of prey were recorded within 80 km of the village of Berdun. Three additional species have also been seen by other observers, thus over four-fifths of the raptorial species recorded in Spain have occurred in this small area.Simple daily counts showed an average of 38 birds of prey of 6·4 species seen per field day. These compare favourably with similar counts made in other parts of Europe.The observations suggest that a significant proportion of Europe's griffon vultures (see Table 1) and lammergeiers occur, the latter representing 7% of the European population. The future of vultures in the area is briefly discussed.     

Use of a refluxing mist chamber for measurement of gas-phase mercury(II) species in the atmosphere

As part of current efforts to understand the cycling of mercury (Hg) in the atmosphere, information is needed on its atmospheric speciation. Almost no data exists on water-soluble Hg(II) species in ambient air. A new technique for measuring gas phase water soluble Hg(II) species has been developed, utilizing a high-flow refluxing mist chamber. Extensive testing has been carried out, including attempts to rule out production of artifact Hg(II). Measurements at two locations (East-Central Tennessee and the Ohio-Indiana border) found approximately 0.05–0.15 ng/m³ of reactive Hg(II), representing ca. 3 to 5% of the total gaseous Hg. Limited tests of artifact Hg(II) production in the mist chamber by ozone oxidation and co-sampled aerosol Hg(II) suggest that the majority of the collected Hg(II) exists in ambient air in the gas phase.     

The introduced fishes of Papua New Guinea with special reference to Tilapia mossambica

Twenty-one species of freshwater fishes in 19 genera (Salmo, Salvelinus, Retropinna, Barbus, Ctenopharyngodon, Cyprinus, Hypophthalmichthys, Puntius, Tandanus, Gambusia, Poecilia, Percolates, Plectroplites, Bidyanus, Tilapia, Trachystoma, Hypseleotris, Osphronemus and Trichogaster) representing 11 families and all six continental regions have been introduced into Papua New Guinea. A list of species, date of first introduction, distribution and comments are presented. The dispersal of Tilapia mossambica on Bougainville Island from a single introduction followed by floods and human transport is discussed.     

Influence of former cultivation on the unique Mediterranean steppe of France and consequences for conservation management

In Europe, the actual landscape has been mainly influenced by human activities. Agricultural intensification led to a considerable habitat loss and fragmentation, especially for dry semi-natural grasslands.This current study investigates the impact of former melon and cereal cultivation (cultivation period: 1950-1987) on the semi-natural vegetation of the Crau, representing the last xeric Mediterranean steppe in France.Today, the ex-cultivated melon and cereal fields are characterised by different vegetation compositions, species richness and evenness compared to the undisturbed steppe community. Also the abiotic conditions (N, P, K, pH, soil granule fractions) have been changed by former cultivation practices. The rather transient seed bank of the steppe was depleted during the cultivation periods; ancient weed species and ruderals now determine the seed bank of the ex-cultivated fields.It is concluded that the conservation of the last parts of undisturbed steppe must have absolute priority. A re-development of the original and unique steppe community on formerly cultivated fields may take decades or centuries, if at all.     

An investigation of the pathogenic and non-pathogenic free-living amoebae from the root zone method of wastewater treatment

Pathogenic and non-pathogenic free-living amoebae from the Root Zone Method (RZM) of wastewater treatment were investigated. Ten reed beds planted on four different substrate types were compared for their efficiency of removal of free-living amoebae. Reed beds planted on coarse substrates generally gave the highest removal rates (up to 100%) while those planted in soil gave the lowest (60.4%). Possible reasons for differences in removal efficiencies are discussed. Thirteen species representing nine genera of free-living amoebae were isolated; these included three species of Acanthamoeba (A. astronyxis, A. polyphaga and A.rhysodes) all of which were pathogenic for mice. The implications for RZM design of the presence of potentially pathogenic free-living amoebae in the effluent are discussed.     

The utility and limitations of size and spacing guidelines for designing marine protected area (MPA) networks

Marine protected areas (MPAs) implemented to conserve biodiversity must protect many species with a broad range of movement characteristics. To meet that goal, size and spacing guidelines have been used in MPA network design as a proxy for explicitly representing connectivity and species movement. However, there has been no assessment of the biological effects of these simple rules. We evaluated these guidelines by estimating population persistence with a spatially explicit population model over: (1) an idealized coastline and (2) an example from California, USA. Persistence of a species within an MPA network depends strongly on its movement characteristics; therefore we used the number of combinations of larval dispersal distances and adult home range diameters as an index representing the number of species that could be protected by a MPA network. The index of species protected usually increased steadily with increasing MPA size. By contrast, decreasing MPA spacing only produced large increases in the index when spacing became close enough to allow species persistence via network connectivity rather than self replenishment. Species persistence also depended on the exploitation rate outside MPAs. Size and spacing guidelines are a simple and useful way to begin the MPA network design process, but meeting these guidelines does not guarantee persistence for all populations one may wish to protect. The use of spatially explicit population dynamics models that evaluate population persistence directly provides a more comprehensive basis for comparing proposed MPA network designs.     

Increased frequency of drought reduces species richness of enchytraeid communities in both wet and dry heathland soils

Studies of biological responses in the terrestrial environment to rapid changes in climate have mostly been concerned with above-ground biota, whereas less is known of belowground organisms. The present study focuses on enchytraeids (Oligochaeta) of heathland ecosystems and how the enchytraeid community has responded to simulated climate change in a long-term field experiment. Either increased temperature or repeated drought was applied for 13 years to field plots located in Wales, The Netherlands and Denmark representing a gradient in precipitation and annual temperature fluctuations thereby providing an opportunity to study biological responses on a local (within sites) and regional scale. Warming treatments increasing night-time temperature (0.5–1 °C higher than ambient at 5 cm soil depth) had no detectable effects on the enchytraeid communities. Increased intensity and frequency of drought had rather weak persistent effects on total enchytraeid abundance suggesting that ecosystem functions of enchytraeids may only be transiently impacted by repeated spring or summer drought. However, drought treatment had persistent negative effects on species richness and community structure across sites. Drought treated plots harboured only 35–65% of the species present in control plots, and the reduction of species richness was most pronounced at the driest sites. It is discussed that soil invertebrates, due to their weak migratory potential, may be more liable to extinction under changing climatic conditions than above-ground species, and therefore consequences of climate change to soil organisms need particular attention in future research.     

Genetic relationships and variation in the tropical mimosoid legume Desmanthus assessed by random amplified polymorphic DNA

A number of Desmanthus spp. are being evaluated for forage potential on clay soils in the tropics and subtropics and three cultivars have already been released in Australia. These accessions have been chosen from the large number of Desmanthus accessions collected from the Americas over the last 40 years. The utilization of this genetic resource is dependent on understanding the diversity within and between species. Hence 284 accessions, representing 11 species, were analysed using RAPD markers. There was considerable polymorphism in D. virgatus, D. leptophyllus and D. pernambucanus but this was not always uniform across the geographical range of these species. There was little polymorphism in D. pubescens. Few accessions of D. acuminatus, D. paspalaceus and D. tatuhyensis were represented in the collection, but these species, which have an almost sympatric distribution in Paraguay/Uruguay/Argentina/Brazil, showed affinities to D. leptophyllus and to each other. D. pernambucanus was the only species with representatives from regions other than the Americas, suggesting that this species in particular has the capacity to colonize new regions. The analysis indicated that the non-American D. pernambucanus germplasm probably originated from Brazil.     

Genetic resources of wild tuberous food plants traditionally used in Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India

The subterranean parts of many wild plants form an important constituent of traditional diet of the tribal inhabitants of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha especially in times of food scarcity during critical periods. However, no specific study has been made so far on this aspect. The present study was conducted during 2008–2012 as a search for sources of food and to assess the dietary diversity, consumption pattern, culinary uses and prioritized species of wild tuberous plants sustained by local tribes. The exploration and germplasm collection missions along with intensive botanical survey, focus group discussions, structured household interview and market survey were conducted in 30 villages interacting with 102 key informants of core and buffer zones. A total of 55 wild edible tuberous species representing 37 genera and 24 families were inventoried including 17 species used during food deficiency to meet seasonal shortages. The analyzed data contributed 5 use categories, 4 preparation methods, 7 kinds of food items, 10 species as children snacks, 35 species of pharma-foods and 20 prioritized species. Ten species were domesticated by tribes thus reducing threats on wild tubers and 20 species were traded in local markets to generate additional income exemplifying economic benefits from wild tubers. Seventeen species were identified as novel uses of food items from India. The findings suggested that the nutritional profile along with pharmaceutical attributes of preferred wild food plants be analyzed for recommending suitable species for better nutrition and development of nutraceuticals. Further, many genetic resources of these wild tuberous species of agri-horticultural importance constitute the wild genepool hence their economic and breeding potential along with desirable attributes need to be investigated for utilization in crop improvement programmes.     

Swarming of bats at underground sites in Britain—implications for conservation

We investigated the extent of visitation of underground sites during late summer and autumn (‘swarming’) by bats. Bats were captured at eight cave, mine and tunnel sites in southern England over 6 years (1995-2000). A total of 3077 bats representing 11 of Britain's 16 species was caught. Myotis bats predominated in autumn. At some sites these are rarely seen during winter hibernation counts. Myotis nattereri and M. daubentonii were most common. However, species composition changed seasonally. At one site, M. brandtii dominated early in the season and at all sites peak activity of M. daubentonii was earlier than in M. nattereri. Relatively high numbers of internationally vulnerable species such as M. bechsteinii and Barbastella barbastellus were recorded. There was a strong male bias in captures of swarming species. Swarming probably has an important reproductive function, most males are reproductively active at this time and such sites may be important for outbreeding. Due to this and the large number of individuals and species concerned, the conservation of ‘swarming sites’ is vitally important. Clearly swarming sites merit special consideration in conservation management strategies for cave-dwelling bats.     

Occurrence of resveratrol in edible peanuts

Resveratrol has been associated with reduced cardiovascular disease and reduced cancer risk. This phytoalexin has been reported in a number of plant species, including grapes, and may be one of the compounds responsible for the health benefits of red wine. Analytical methods for measuring resveratrol in wine and peanuts were adapted to isolate, identify, and quantify resveratrol in several cultivars of peanuts. Aqueous ethanol (80% v/v) extracts from peanuts without seed coats were purified over alumina/silica gel columns and analyzed by reversed phase HPLC using a C-18 column. Peanuts from each market type, Virginia, runner, and Spanish, produced in four different locations contained from 0.03 to 0.14 microg of resveratrol/g. Seed coats from runner and Virginia types contained approximately 0.65 microg/g of seed coat, which is equivalent to <0.04 microg/seed. Quantitative analysis of 15 cultivars representing 3 peanut market types, which had been cold stored for up to 3 years, indicated a range of 0.02-1.79 microg/g of peanut compared to 0.6-8.0 microg/mL in red wines.     

An investigation of the pathogenic and non-pathogenic free-living amoebae in an activated-sludge plant

Pathogenic and non-pathogenic free-living amoebae from an activated-sludge plant were investigated. The greatest species diversity occurred in the raw, settled sewage and at the beginning of the aeration tank, whilst the lowest number of species occurred in the final sedimentation tanks. Thirteen species of free-living amoebae representing eleven genera were isolated; these included three species of Acanthamoeba (A. castellanii, A. culbertsoni and A. polyphaga), all of wich were pathogenic to mice with varying degrees of virulence. The implications for the public health risk of the presence of pathogenic free-living amoebae in activated-sludge plants are discussed.     

Species presence in fragmented landscapes: modelling of species requirements at the national level

The fragmentation of ancient woodland has been identified as a cause of decline in biodiversity in the UK. Current policy advocates the targeting of resources to mitigate its effects. In this study a number of patch and landscape scale measures of ancient woodland distribution were derived from national data sets. These measures were translated into independent variables representing patterns of woodland cover using principal component analysis (PCA). Key species were selected according to differing sensitivities to fragmentation of ancient woodland. Logistic regression models of species distributions were constructed.A range of bird and mammal distributions were found to be correlated to landscape scale measures of fragment distribution, in contrast to butterfly and plant species, which exhibited a stronger correlation to patch-scale measures. The national distribution of a range of woodland species is predicted. New information is presented on the landscape requirements of woodland species, particularly those that enable them to persist in fragmented woodland landscapes. The different scales at which species show a sensitivity to fragment distribution are discussed. The results confirm the association between species and different aspects of the structure of the wooded landscape, and provide information of value in targeting national conservation expenditure in England.     

Development of ecosystems to climate change and the interaction with pollution—Unpredictable changes in community structures

Climate change has serious impacts on ecosystems, e.g. species diversity and abundance. It is well known that changes in temperature may have a pronounced influence on the reproductive output, growth and survival of various terrestrial species. However, much less is known on to how changes in temperature combined with exposure to pollution will influence biodiversity, the interaction between species, and the resulting change in species composition. In order to understand the effects of changes in temperature and copper pollution (individually and in combination) on soil communities and processes, a factorial multispecies experiment was performed. Six animal species (representing different functional groups) were exposed in control (30 mg Cu/kg) and copper-contaminated soil (1000 mg Cu/kg) to four temperatures (10, 14, 19, and 23 °C) representing the “summer” range (low to high) for Denmark, and three exposure periods (28, 61, and 84 days). The species composition, feeding activity and OM turnover were assessed throughout. Multivariate analysis displayed significant changes in the food-web both with different copper levels and temperatures, resulting in different species composition for each exposure scenario. The most important species were Enchytraeus crypticus (most sensitive to copper and temperature) and Folsomia candida (most abundant). Major changes in abundance due to temperature occurred in the first 28 days of exposure, where population growth was higher. A temperature dependent population growth rate could be modeled for an exposure period of 28 days, whereas after 61 and 84 days of exposure the data did not fit the model. Especially for treatments that also included Cu, modeling of the population growth was no longer possible. The results of our study indicate that when climate change occurs in polluted areas, the consequences on populations cannot be predicted based on data from non-polluted areas. The risk may be synergistic for certain species, as indicated in the present study, and the final balance may depend on the particular species composition of that ecosystem.     

Impacts of habitat disturbance on termites and soil water storage in a tropical Australian savanna

This study examines changes in the abundance and diversity of soil macroinvertebrate taxa and soil water storage across different disturbance treatments in a tropical savanna woodland in northern Australia. Nine plots representing three habitat disturbance treatments (uncleared savanna woodland; 25-year-old regrowth following past clearing; cleared areas) were sampled for macrofauna using soil pits in April 2003. Sub-surface soil moisture (0-0.4 m) was measured at 0.1 m intervals over the 2002/2003 wet season. Termites represented 55% of total individuals sampled. Abundance of soil macrofauna was greatest in uncleared plots and lowest in cleared plots, with the latter treatment also having the lowest taxon diversity. Mean abundances of termites, earthworms and ants were greatest in uncleared treatment plots. Five termite species from four genera were present, with Microcerotermes nervosus constituting 47% of termite species identified. Of the wood-, grass- and polyphagous-feeding termites present, wood-feeding species were restricted to uncleared treatment plots and grass-feeders to regrowth treatment plots. A shift in termite nesting habits from epigeal to hypogeal was observed from uncleared to cleared treatments. Soil water storage was lowest in the dry season and highest during the monsoon, and varied significantly across habitat disturbance treatments at the start and end of the wet season. Cleared plots were least effective in the capture of the first wet season rains, and uncleared treatment plots showed the greatest capacity to retain soil water during the transition from wet to dry season. The negative effects of habitat disturbance on soil water storage may have been partially mediated by the observed changes in soil macrofauna, especially termites.     

How good are managed forests at conserving native woodpecker communities? A study in sub-Himalayan dipterocarp forests of northwest India

We assessed the impact of forest management on woodpecker community structure sub-Himalayan dipterocarp sal (Shorea robusta) forests. We selected eight sites representing four management-based ‘forest types’ (natural unworked sal, old- and young managed sal, and teak plantations). At each site, bird surveys were conducted along 2-km-long transects, 20 times during breeding and non-breeding seasons. Habitat characteristics were enumerated using circular and belt plots. Species composition across forest types was compared using multi-response permutation procedures. Indicator analysis identified woodpecker species preferring particular forest types. Biomass, abundance, and mean species richness of woodpeckers were highest in natural sal, intermediate in managed sal, and lowest in teak. There were apparent differences in woodpecker densities between seasons. Densities were higher in breeding season than non-breeding season for natural sal, while the opposite was true for managed sal. Woodpecker species composition significantly differed across forest types. The four largest species, including grey-headed (Picus canus) and greater yellownape (Picus flavinucha) that were identified as indicators, predominated natural sal but were scarce in other types. At a broader level, mean species richness of woodpeckers strongly indicated mean richness of other avifauna during breeding season. Our study suggests that forest management has significantly altered the sub-Himalayan woodpecker community structure. Managed sal forests, particularly teak plantations, are largely unable to support the original woodpecker assemblage during breeding season, although they provide foraging grounds during non-breeding season.     

Distribution, collection and conservation of bio-diversity in cruciferous oilseeds in India

In 26 crops specific and several multicrop explorations, 2592 germplasm representing diversity in cruciferous oilseeds namely Brassica juncea (L.) Czern., B. rapa L. ssp. trilocularis (Roxb.) Hanelt, B. rapa L. ssp. dichotoma (Roxb.) Hanelt, B. rapa L. ssp. oleifera (DC) Metzg.; B. nigra (L.) Koch, B. tournefortii Gouan and Eruca sativa Mill, and wild related genera-Lepidium, Sisymbrium, Crambe, Arabis, Barbarea etc. have been collected by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources since 1976, independently as well as in collaboration with crop based institutes and projects, state agricultural universities and departments and foreign universities. The variability has been collected through random sampling in diverse habitats in 20 states of India. The indigenous collections exhibited facinating variability in important morphological, economic and resistance traits. Tarai region in Gorakhpur and Deoria for B. rapa L. ssp. trilocularis (Roxb.) Hanelt, local – yellow sarson; diara lands in Budaun for B. rapa L. ssp. oleifera (DC) Metzg., local – toria; central parts of Uttar Pradesh for B. rapa L. ssp. dichotoma (Roxb.) Hanelt, local – brown sarson; Tibbi area in Ganganagar for B. tournefortii Gouan; Mewat region and Chambal ravines for Eruca sativa Mill. have been identified as the hot spots of variability in respective species. These areas still hold a lot of variability worth utilizing, even through direct selection by the breeders. A general pattern of variability indicated that early dwarf types are distributed in the eastern parts of the country with frequency increasing towards the border areas facing Bangladesh. Whereas tall, late, robust, high bearing and/or high yielding types are concentrated in the western parts of the country, particularly in Haryana and Rajasthan. To broaden germplasm base further, over 2000 accessions of different types have been introduced from 22 countries and promising lines identified for further uses. 4589 lines representing diversity in cruciferous oilseeds have been conserved in the National Gene Bank for posterity and gaps in collection have been discussed.