Potential of Gmelina arborea for solid wood products

New Forests - This paper explains the process of producing healthy trees and sound wood for Gmelina arborea Roxb. (gmelina) in Costa Rica. Ston Forestal S. A. began planting gmelina in the early...     

Effect of management treatment and growing regions on wood properties of Gmelina arborea in Costa Rica

Gmelina arborea (gmelina) was introduced into Costa Rica through reforestation programs with federal incentives. Two areas where gmelina planting were most abundant were the North Pacific and North regions of the country that are representative of dry tropical and humid tropical climatic zones, respectively. This distribution pattern has led to plantations with different management regimes, which still exist today, namely intensive, intermediate and no management treatment. This research looks at the type of wood being produced in both climatic regions and the effect of management intensity. Preliminary results indicate that gmelina wood from the dry region has a higher heartwood percentage, higher specific gravity, better mechanical properties and higher absorption of preservatives when pressure treated than does wood from the humid regions. With regards to management intensity, the results indicate that plantations with no management produced higher specific gravity wood with better mechanical properties than those with intensive or intermediate management. There were no differences between intermediate and intensive management regimes in relation to heartwood percent, decay resistance, and preservative absorption using the dip-diffusion system. Palabras clave: Clima, Duramen, Peso específico básico, Manejo, Propiedades de madera Resumen. La Gmelina arborea fue introducida en toda Costa Rica a través de los programas de reforestación con incentivos fiscales por parte del estado. Las dos áreas en particular, en donde se plantó gmelina ampliamente, fueron la Pacifico Norte y Norte de Costa Rica las cuales representan un clima tropical seco y un clima tropical húmedo respectivamente. Estos patrones de distribución en la reforestación, dieron como resultado diferentes grados de manejo, los cuales existen todavía, con áreas con manejo intensivo, intermedio y sin manejo alguno. Esta investigación examina los diferentes tipos de madera que se está produciendo en las dos regiones climáticas y el efecto que tiene la intensidad en el manejo de las mismas. Los resultados preliminares han indicado que la madera de gmelina proveniente del clima tropical seco presenta un mayor porcentaje de duramen, una mayor peso específico básico, mejores propiedades de resistencia y una mayor absorción de los preservantes, cuando se utiliza el método vacío-presión, que la madera proveniente de regiones húmedas. No se encontraron diferencias entre los regímenes de manejo intermedio y manejo intensivo, con relación al porcentaje del duramen, resistencia al ataque de los hongos, y la absorción de los preservantes cuando se utiliza el sistema de difusión (dip-diffusion system).     

Evaluating the strength of finger-jointed lumber of Gmelina arborea in Costa Rica

The use of finger-jointed lumber of Gmelina arborea (gmelina) for the production of glue-laminated beams is becoming more important to the wood industry in Costa Rica. At the request of the local wood industry, two different kinds of adhesives, thermoplastic polyvinyl emulsion (catalyzed PVA) and 1-part polyurethane adhesive (PU) were tested on finger joints of gmelina wood and their strength properties compared under dry, boiled, and saturated conditions. The results showed that under the boiled and saturated conditions, the PVA adhesive exhibited low tensile strength and poor distribution of failures while PU showed much more promise. Based on our preliminary results, the PU adhesive can be successfully used for finger-joint boards of gmelina. Palabras clave: Adhesivos, Melina, Modos de falla, Vigas laminadas Resumen. El uso de la madera unida con juntas de dedo (finger-jointed) para la producción de vigas laminadas-encoladas está tomando mayor importancia en la industria maderera de Costa Rica. Atendiendo la solicitud de la industria, sobre la calidad de los finger joints de la madera de melina, se ensayaron dos tipos diferentes de adhesivos, una emulsión de polivinilo catalizado (thermoplastic polyvinyl emulsion, catalizado, PVA) y un adhesivo de poliuretano (polyurethane adhesive, PU) de un componente, para comparar sus características de resistencia bajo condiciones secas, de ebullición y de saturación. Los resultados muestran que bajo condiciones de ebullición y saturación, el adhesivo PVA tiene una baja resistencia a la tensión y una deficiente distribución de fallas, mientras que el PU mostró resultados mucho más prometedores. Basados en los resultados preliminares, el adhesivo PU puede ser utilizado exitosamente para unir las tablas de melina con juntas de dedo.     

中国与哥斯达黎加森林生态补偿比较及启示

文中从多个角度比较中国与哥斯达黎加2国的森林生态补偿，发现其最根本的差异在于，哥斯达黎加建立的横向生态补偿机制使其实现了补偿资金来源渠道的多元化，而在中国政府是主要的补偿主体因而资金来源渠道单一，产生这一差异的根本原因是产权归属；以此为基础，提出创新中国森林生态补偿的可行建议，即政府“创造”森林生态补偿市场和深化森林资源产权改革。     

Ecosystem services from coffee agroforestry in Central America: estimation using the CAF2021 model

The goal of sustainable coffee production requires multiple functions from agroforestry systems. Many are difficult to quantify and data are lacking, hampering the choice of shade tree species and agronomic management. Process-based modelling may help quantify ecosystem services and disservices. We introduce and apply coffee agroforestry model CAF2021 (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5862195). The model allows for complex systems with up to three shade tree species. It simulates coffee yield, timber and fruit production by shade trees, soil loss in erosion, C-sequestration, N-fixation, -emission and -leaching. To calibrate the model, we used multivariate data from 32 different treatments applied in two long-term coffee agroforestry experiments in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Without any further calibration, the model was then applied to agroforestry systems on 89 farms in Costa Rica and 79 in Guatemala where yields had been reported previously in farmer interviews. Despite wide variation in environmental and agronomic conditions, the model explained 36% of yield variation in Costa Rica but only 15% in Guatemala. Model analysis quantified trade-offs between yield and other ecosystem services as a function of fertilisation and shading.

     

The CAMCORE international provenance/progeny trials of Gmelina arborea: genetic parameters and potential gain

New Forests - This paper reports early results from the provenance/progeny trials in Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Indonesia, Mexico and Venezuela. These were the first international collections...     

哥斯达黎加森林生态服务补偿机制演进及启示

通过分析哥斯达黎加森林生态服务补偿机制演进历程,总结出其项目类型多样、参加者自主性强、项目合同规范高效、项目资金来源渠道丰富、补偿标准合理、从自愿的补偿向强制性支付转变等对我国有益的启示,并在此基础上提出改进我国森林生态效益补偿机制的建议。     

哥斯达黎加国家公园管理精髓解析

哥斯达黎加以其在生物多样性保护和可持续旅游发展等方面所取得的丰富成果而受到IUCN、WWF等国际组织的广泛关注和高度评价。国家公园是哥斯达黎加自然保护地体系中承担保护和游憩功能的主要载体。科学有效的管理为哥斯达黎加国家公园的功能发挥提供了有力保障,具有较高的示范意义和参考价值。文中介绍了哥斯达黎加国家公园建设概况,在对其国家公园管理体系梳理的基础上,提炼了制度化、精细化和公众化等管理精髓,并解析了管理框架、法律法规体系、顶层设计、科学管理系列研究、公众参与和志愿者管理机制等管理核心内容与关键技术,以期为我国国家公园建设和管理提供借鉴。     

Collection and initial evaluation of Gliricidia sepium from Costa Rica

This paper describes a recently completed collection of Gliricidia sepium germplasm in Costa Rica. Some characteristics of the collection sites are presented, and the range of variation in some plant characteristics described. Initial results from an evaluation in Nigeria indicate the collection contains significant variation for yield when managed in the context of alley farming.     

The response ofTeretriosoma nigrescens lewis (Col.: Histeridae) to the pheromone ofProstephanus truncatus (Horn) (Col.: Bostrichidae)

Adults of the histeridTeretriosoma nigrescens Lewis, a predator of the Larger Grain BorerProstephanus truncatus (Horn), were captured under field conditions in Costa Rica within the same pheromone traps as the stored product pest. Neither insect could be found in unbaited traps. The possible kairomonal importance of the prey's pheromone is discussed.     

Modelling agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) with laurel (Cordia alliodora) and poro (Erythrina poeppigiana) in Costa Rica III. Cycles of organic matter and nutrients

Models for cycles for organic matter and nutrients element (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) are presented for the agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) withCordia alliodora orErythrina poeppigiana in Turrialba, Costa Rica. For the models, system reserves (soil, humus, vegetation divided into leaves, branches, stems, fine roots, fruits) and transference between compartments (production and decomposition of litter residues) inputs (fertilizer, rainfall) and outputs (harvests) of the system are considered. The implications of the models are discussed in detail. Aspects of net primary production in the systems studied are considered. N fixation is calculated on the basis of balances. Analysis of soil water showed high variations that coincided with rainfall patterns and pruning of theE. poeppigiana. For part I see Vol. 4, No. 3, 1986 For part II see this issue Agroforestry Project, CATIE/GTZ (Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Center/Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit), Turrialba, Costa Rica     

Modelling agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) with laurel (Cordia alliodora) and poro (Erythrina poeppigiana) in Costa Rica III. Cycles of organic matter and nutrients

Models for cycles for organic matter and nutrients element (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) are presented for the agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) withCordia alliodora orErythrina poeppigiana in Turrialba, Costa Rica.For the models, system reserves (soil, humus, vegetation divided into leaves, branches, stems, fine roots, fruits) and transference between compartments (production and decomposition of litter residues) inputs (fertilizer, rainfall) and outputs (harvests) of the system are considered.The implications of the models are discussed in detail.Aspects of net primary production in the systems studied are considered.N fixation is calculated on the basis of balances. Analysis of soil water showed high variations that coincided with rainfall patterns and pruning of theE. poeppigiana.For part I see Vol. 4, No. 3, 1986 For part II see this issueAgroforestry Project, CATIE/GTZ (Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Center/Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit), Turrialba, Costa Rica     

Growth,carbon sequestration,and management of native tree plantations in humid regions of Costa Rica

The Costa Rican government has provided incentives for reforestation programs since 1986 and initiated a Payment for Environmental Services program in 1996. These incentives yielded native species reforestation programs throughout the country. This research aims to provide information about growth, carbon sequestration, and management of seven native tree species (Vochysia guatemalensis, Vochysia ferruginea, Hyeronima alchorneoides, Calophyllum brasiliense, Terminalia amazonia, Virola koschnyi, and Dipteryx panamensis) growing in small and medium-sized plantations in the Caribbean and Northern lowlands of Costa Rica. A total of 179 plots were evaluated in 32 farms. Overall, I found that V. guatemalensis, V. ferruginea, H. alchorneoides, and T. amazonia were the species with the fastest diameter, total height, and volume growth; and T. amazonia and D. panamensis sequestered more carbon. Moreover, I found that the plantations that had been thinned before this assessment had the best growth. The results of the present research enhance the criteria elaborated in previous research findings to improve species choices for reforestation and silvicultural management in Costa Rica and in other regions with similar ecological features. Furthermore, they support the concept that tropical plantations can serve diverse economic, social, and ecological functions that may ultimately help reduce atmospheric CO₂ accumulation.     

Soil carbon dynamics and residue stabilization in a Costa Rican and southern Canadian alley cropping system

Agroforestry systems can play a major role in the sequestration of carbon (C) because of their higher input of organic material to the soil compared to sole crop agroecosystems. This study quantified C input in a 19-year old tropical alley cropping system with E. poeppigiana (Walp.) O.F Cook in Costa Rica and in a 13-year old hybrid poplar (Populus deltoides × nigra DN-177) alley cropping system in southern Canada. Changes in the level of the soil organic carbon (SOC) pool, residue decomposition rate, residue stabilization efficiency, and the annual rate of accumulation of SOC were also quantified in both systems. Carbon input from tree prunings in Costa Rica was 401 g C m⁻² y⁻¹ compared to 117 g C m⁻² y⁻¹ from litterfall at the Canadian site. In southern Canada, crop residue input from maize (Zea mays L.) was 212 g C m⁻² y⁻¹, 83 g C m⁻² y⁻¹ from soybeans (Glycine max L.) and 125 g C m⁻² y⁻¹ for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), and was not significantly different (p < 0.05) from the sole crop. The average yearly C input from crop residues in Costa Rica was significantly greater (p < 0.05) in the alley crop for maize (134 g C m⁻² y⁻¹) and Phaseolus vulgaris L. bean crops (35 g C m⁻² y⁻¹) compared to the sole crop. The SOC pool was significantly greater (p < 0.05) in the Costa Rican alley crop (9536 g m⁻²) compared to its respective sole crop (6143 g m⁻²) to a 20 cm depth, but no such difference was found for the southern Canadian system. Residue stabilization, defined as the efficiency of the stabilization of added residue (crop residues, tree prunings, litterfall) that is added to the soil C pool, is more efficient in southern Canada (31%) compared to the alley cropping system in Costa Rica (40%). This coincides with a lower organic matter decomposition rate (0.03 y⁻¹) to a 20 cm depth in Canada compared to the Costa Rican system (0.06 y⁻¹). However, the average annual accumulation rate of SOC is greater in Costa Rica (179 g m⁻² y⁻¹) and is likely related to the greater input of organic material derived from tree prunings, compared to that in southern Canada (30 g m⁻² y⁻¹) to a 20 cm depth.     

Coffee agroecosystem performance under full sun, shade, conventional and organic management regimes in Central America

Changes in coffee economics are leading producers to reduce agrochemical use and increase the use of shade. Research is needed on how to balance the competition from shade trees with the provision of ecological services to the coffee. In 2000, long-term coffee experiments were established in Costa Rica and Nicaragua to compare coffee agroecosystem performance under full sun, legume and non-legume shade types, and intensive and moderate conventional and organic inputs. Coffee yield from intensive organic production was not significantly different from intensive conventional in Nicaragua, but in Costa Rica it was lower during three of the six harvests. Full sun coffee production over 6 years was greater than shaded coffee in Costa Rica (61.8 vs. 44.7 t ha^?1, P = 0.0002). In Nicaragua, full sun coffee production over 5 years (32.1 t ha^?1) was equal to coffee with shade that included Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC., (27?C30 t ha^?1) and both were more productive (P = 0.03) than coffee shaded with Inga laurina (Sw.) Willd. (21.6 t ha^?1). Moderate input organic production was significantly lower than other managements under all shade types, except in the presence of Erythrina poepiggina (Walp.) O.F. Cook. Inga and Erythrina had greater basal area and nutrient recycling from prunings than other shade species. Intensive organic production increased soil pH and P, and had higher K compared to moderate conventional. Although legume shade trees potentially provide ecological services to associated coffee, this depends on management of the competition from those same trees.     

The ecological sustainability of tropical forest management: evaluation of the national forest management standards of Costa Rica and Nicaragua, with emphasis on the need for adaptive management

From a conceptual point of view, national forest management standards in Latin American countries have progressed significantly in recent years. Examples include the Costa Rican Standards and Procedures for Sustainable Forest Management and Certification, developed by the National Commission for Forest Certification and in Nicaragua, the National Institute of Forestry proposal of principles, criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. In line with general approaches worldwide, these national standards primarily focus on the fulfillment of sound forest practice. There is comparatively little emphasis on the assessment of management outcomes or changes in key components of the eco- and social-systems that result from management impacts. Essentially, there is little emphasis on adaptive management, though arguments that management cannot be sustainable if it is not adaptive are persuasive. This study sought to contribute to the development of standards that include elements for adaptive management that define, communicate and evaluate sustainable forest management in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Elements from the national standards and the CIFOR generic C&I template (predominantly focused on forest management outcomes) were used as a starting point. The basic research process consisted of three phases of evaluation (in-office, desk and field). The evaluations were carried out by multidisciplinary, international groups of experts in forest ecology, management and policy. This study demonstrated the value of forums and workshops that facilitate exchange between forest scientists and policymakers; the innovation and application of a practical, applicable and scientifically based methodology for developing national level C&I; and acceptance of this methodology by key players in the fields of forest management and policy. These experiences and the resulting proposals of C&I for the evaluation of ecologically sustainable forest management are expected to be used as points of reference for future development of forest policy in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, and to contribute to the overall understanding of C&I development processes in the region.     

Implementing on-farm agroforestry research: lessons learned in Talamanca,Costa Rica

The rapid appraisal and farmer selection procedures, preceding the establishment of over fifty agroforestry research trials on farms in Talamanca, Costa Rica are described. The highest probability of success and impact of these long-term collaborative trials is obtained by selecting innovative, experienced, motivated and locally respected farmers. The methodological lessons learned from implementing three types of researcher managed trials (shade-cacao; black pepper on living support posts; timber production in boundary lines) are discussed. The importance of fitting farmer selection criteria to project objectives, experimental designs to on-farm limitations, and project goals to farmers' goals, are emphasized.     

World view of Gmelina arborea: opportunities and challenges

Gmelina arborea Roxb. (gmelina) occurs naturally in 11 countries in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. Approximately 700,000?ha of gmelina have now been established in plantations, small woodlots and agroforestry settings in west-central and eastern Africa, southeast Asia, the South Pacific, and northern Latin America. It is expected that planting areas will expand to 800,000?ha by 2020. The species has generated interest because of its fast growth and quick return on investment. Its wood can be used for a multitude of products that range from pulp to furniture parts. Gmelina also has great utility in agroforestry systems. Intensive breeding and improved clones will bring better growth, more uniform wood, better disease resistance, and products of higher quality to both local and international markets. Several factors might limit the degree of improvement and use of gmelina: (a) the species is susceptible to insect attacks and disease which might limit plantation expansion, (b) artificial pollinations are labor intensive and sometimes difficult to complete successfully, thus delaying breeding cycles and deployment of elite populations and clones and (c) the wood density of gmelina is approximately 410?kg/m³ at 8 years of age, which is lower than most commercial species of eucalypts and acacias. Low density affects pulp yields and product strength. These challenges can be met by: (a) development of clones resistant to insect and disease attacks as a cost effective means to maintain plantation stocking and productivity, (b) development of one-stop pollination techniques to increase pollination success rates and reduce the work loads in breeding programs, and (c) utilization of the great tree to tree variation in wood properties in gmelina to develop new races of trees that have both desirable growth rates and dense wood. Access to a broad genetic base of gmelina is central to meeting these challenges.

Palabras clave: Conservación, Mejoramiento, Plantaciones, Propiedades de madera, Silvicultura

Resumen. La Gmelina arborea Roxb. (gmelina) es nativa de 11 países, en regiones tropicales y subtropicales de Asia. Hasta el momento, aproximadamente 700,000 ha de gmelina han sido establecidas en plantaciones, lotes de árboles y en sitios agroforestales en el oeste central y el este de África, el sureste de Asia, el Pacifico Sur y el norte de América Latina. Se espera que para el año 2020, las áreas de plantación se hayan extendido a 800,000?ha. Esta especie ha generado interés debido a su rápido crecimiento y pronto retorno de inversión. Su madera puede ser utilizada en una multitud de productos, los cuales van desde pulpa de madera hasta partes para muebles. Además, la gmelina es de gran utilidad en programas agroforestales. El mejoramiento genético intensivo y clones mejorados darán como resultado un mejor crecimiento, madera más uniforme, mejor resistencia a las enfermedades y productos de mayor calidad tanto para los mercados locales como los internacionales.

Existen varios factores que pueden limitar el grado de mejoramiento y el uso de la gmelina: (a) la susceptibilidad de la especie al ataque de los insectos y las enfermedades, lo cual puede limitar la expansión de las plantaciones, (b) las polinizaciones artificiales requieren de mucha mano de obra y son dificiles de completar lo cual demora ciclos de mejoramiento y la utilización de las poblaciones élite y clones, y (c) la densidad de la madera de la gmelina a los 8 años de edad, de aproximadamente 410?kg/m³, es más baja que la densidad de la mayoría de las especies comerciales de eucalipto y acacias. La baja densidad afecta los rendimientos de pulpa y la fortaleza del producto. Estos retos pueden ser superados por medio de: (a) el desarrollo de clones resistentes al ataque de insectos y enfermedades como una forma económica y efectiva de mantener la densidad de plantaciones y su productividad, (b) el desarrollo de técnicas de polinización de un solo paso para aumentar las tasas de éxito de la polinización y reducir las cargas de trabajo en los programas de mejoramiento, y (c) el uso de la gran variabilidad de las propiedades de madera de la gmelina de árbol a árbol, para poder desarrollar nuevas razas de árboles las cuales tengan buenas tasas de crecimiento, y una densidad de madera deseada. El acceso a una amplia base genética es clave para poder alcanzar estos retos.

     

Evaluating Alnus acuminata as a component in agroforestry systems

The combination of alder (Alnus acuminata H.B.K.) with pastures, mainly Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyu grass) and P. Purpureum (elephant grass) is a traditional practice in Costa Rican dairy highlands (between 1300–2500 masl). People believe that the pasture grows greener under the trees [Combe, 1979]. Alder is not only advantageous for fodder production but also for fuelwood and timber. It produces an additional source of income to the small farmer. The potential area for this association was first estimated in 60,000 ha [Combe, 1979], but more recent estimations give figures of around 50,000 ha, including one third of this area in pastures already planted with alder [Canet, 1985]. The question of whether the species may have potential for use in agroforestry systems in countries other than Costa Rica and research needs for the species are also discussed.     

Cultivation and utilization of Gmelina arborea in South Yunnan,China

New Forests - Gmelina arborea (gmelina) naturally occurs in four prefectures in southern Yunnan, China. The conservation status of the species is threatened or endangered depending on the locality...