Harlequin ichthyosis in two greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)

Two greater kudu calves (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) born 7 years apart were found with fissures and thickened, scaly, cutaneous plates covering over 80% of their bodies. One was dead at presentation, and the other was euthanized shortly after birth. Both animals shared a common sire. On necropsy, chemosis, ectropion, eclabium, and bilateral valgus deformities of the tarsal joints were observed in one calf, presumed to be secondary to the plates restricting normal fetal development. The principal microscopic lesion was severe lamellar orthokeratosis, with focal mild parakeratosis. Ultrastructural epidermal lesions included the absence of normal lamellar granules, large dilated endoplasmic reticulum, and abnormal retention of organelles and vesicles. Gross, histopathologic, and electron microscopic findings in both kudu calves were consistent with those of harlequin ichthyosis, a rare dermatosis of humans believed to have an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern. The underlying genetic and molecular abnormality and heritability of this condition in this greater kudu herd were not determined.     

Evaluation of passive transfer in captive greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)

Failure of passive transfer (FPT) in captive greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) calves can lead to increased morbidity and mortality. In this retrospective study, serum samples from neonatal kudu calves were tested for immunoglobulin using different tests validated for domestic ruminants, including measurement of gamma globulin (GG) measured by protein electrophoresis, total solids (TS) measured by calibrated refractometry, total protein (TP) and globulins measured by colorimetry, gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT), and the zinc sulfate turbidity test (ZSTT). In a logistic regression model, TP, TS, globulins, and the natural log transform of GGT were the only significant parameters associated with FPT. Various historic parameters related to the dam, as well as calf weight, sex, glucose, and packed cell volume, were not significant. Based on the results, FPT in greater kudu is defined as GG of < 0.5 g/dl, a value lower than that in domestic cattle. TS measured by refractometry has an 80% sensitivity and a 100% specificity for FPT in greater kudu. With FPT defined as GG < 0.5 g/dl, kudu calves with a TS < 4.8 g/dl and a negative ZSTT have an increased probability of requiring medical intervention and additional diagnostics may be warranted.     

Rabies in kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)

Cycles of terrestrial rabies are associated with carnivores. In non-carnivorous species, rabies typically occurs as a spill-over from the carnivore reservoir and quickly encounters a dead end in such species. One major exception to this scenario has been an ongoing epizootic of rabies in the Greater Kudu, an African antelope. These herbivores are found in high densities in southern Africa, but rabies cycles have only been described from Namibia, a vast country located in the South Western region of Africa. Epizootics were first noted in the late 1970's and losses of up to 50 000 animals were estimated by 1985. Between 2002 and 2011, Namibian conservancies again estimated kudu losses ranging from 30-70%, resulting in very significant economic losses to the farming and gaming industries of the country. The sheer magnitude of the epizootic, phylogenetic data and experimental evidence of the particular susceptibility of kudu to rabies infection via mucous membranes are factors in support of a hypothesis that suggests horizontal transmission and maintenance of a rabies cycle within this species. It has become critical to investigate pathways for effective rabies control in Namibia--including the development of a strategy to halt and reverse the devastating epizootic of kudu rabies.     

Juvenile mortality in captive lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) at Basle Zoo and its relation to nutrition and husbandry.

Since 1956, when the Basle Zoo (Switzerland) initiated the breeding of lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis), 43% of the lesser kudu juveniles died before reaching an age of 6 mo. In this study, the objective was to obtain the pathological findings, nutritional history, and family tree information in order to evaluate the influence of husbandry on juvenile mortality in these animals. The main cause of death was white muscle disease (WMD), diagnosed in 14 cases (26%) of the deceased juveniles. Although enclosure size had remained constant and animal accessibility to the public was constantly high, both herd size and juvenile mortality had increased from 1956-2004. The diet consumed by the whole group in 2004 had deficient levels of vitamin E and selenium. The increasing linear trend of the mortality rate since the 1960s was significant, and there was a significant correlation between herd size and overall juvenile mortality. In contrast, there was no correlation between herd size and the occurrence of juvenile mortality associated specifically with WMD. Other investigated factors (sex, inbreeding, and season) had no significant effect on overall mortality up to 6 mo of age or on mortality associated with WMD. These results characterize both a dietary and a husbandry problem, and are supported by a lack of similar juvenile mortality in another facility where the diet was supplemented with vitamin E, animal numbers were kept low, and the enclosure structure offered more retreat options for the animals.     

Parasites of South African wildlife. IV. Helminths of kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros, in the Kruger National Park

During ongoing surveys of parasites of wild animals in the Kruger National Park, a total of 96 kudu. Tragelaphus strepsiceros, were culled in the southern part of the park at monthly intervals from April 1981 to March 1983. A single kudu was shot in the same area in November 1983. Two more kudu were obtained from Pafuri in the northern part of the Park during October 1981 and another from near Satara in the central part of the Park during October 1982. The helminths of all the kudu were collected and 2 trematode, 4 cestode and 18 nematode species recovered. Amongst the helminths recovered, Agriostomum gorgonis, Cooperia fuelleborni, Cooperia hungi, Cooperia yoshidai, Impalaia tuberculata, a Parabronema sp., a Setaria sp., Strongyloides papillosus, Trichostrongylus falculatus, Schistosoma mattheei, an Avitellina sp., Moniezia benedeni, and Echinococcus sp. larvae appear to be new records for kudu. Haemonchus vegliai, which has been considered a rare nematode, was present in many animals. An amended list of the parasites of kudu is included, and the seasonal abundance of the major nematode species discussed and graphically illustrated.     

Parasites of South African wildlife. IX. Helminths of kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros, in the eastern Cape Province

The helminths of 25 kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros, from 3 localities in the eastern Cape Province were collected, counted and identified. The majority of kudu harboured no worms, and the burdens of those infected were small. A race of Cooperia rotundispiculum, a Dictyocaulus sp., a Haemonchus sp., Nematodirus helvetianus and Ostertagia ostertagi were recovered. Two parasites, Nematodirus helvetianus and Ostertagia ostertagi can be added to the list of helminth parasites of kudu in South Africa.     

Scrapie-like encephalopathy in a greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) which had not been fed ruminant-derived protein.

A 19-month-old greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), whose dam had died 15 months earlier with spongiform encephalopathy, required euthanasia after developing severe ataxia and depression with an apparently sudden onset. No macroscopic abnormalities were detected on post mortem examination but a scrapie-like spongiform encephalomyelopathy was apparent on histopathological examination of brain and segments of spinal cord. Negative stain electron microscopy of proteinase K-treated detergent extracts of tissue from the brain stem revealed the presence of scrapie associated fibrils, and a 25 to 28 kDa band comparable with that identified as abnormal PrP (prion protein) from the brains of domestic cattle with spongiform encephalopathy was detected using rabbit antiserum raised against mouse PrP. The animal was born nine months after the statutory ban on the inclusion of ruminant-derived protein in ruminant feeds and, as no other possible sources of the disease were apparent, it appears likely that the infection was acquired from the dam.     

Tick-borne blood parasites in nyala (Tragelaphus angasii, Gray 1849) from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

A total of 97 blood samples of nyala (Tragelaphus angasii, Gray 1849) from South Africa were tested for the presence of tick-borne haemoparasites by means of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization. The majority of blood samples contained several different haemoparasites, often in combination. Prevalent haemoparasites were Theileria sp. (kudu), T. buffeli, Theileria sp. (sable), T. bicornis, Ehrlichia sp. Omatjenne, Anaplasma marginale and A. bovis. This serves as the first report of Theileria sp. (kudu), T. buffeli, T. bicornis, Ehrlichia sp. Omatjenne, A. marginale and A. bovis in nyala, who seem to carry multiple haemoparasites without ill effect.     

Parasites of South African wildlife. II. Helminths of kudu, tragelaphus strepsiceros, from South West Africa/Namibia

A total of 23 kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros, were shot at 2-month intervals from June 1983 to April 1984 in the Etosha Game Reserve in the north of South West Africa/Namibia. The parasite survey conducted on these animals yielded 2 cestode and 12 nematode species. Haemonchus vegliai and Cooperia neitzi were the most prevalent nematodes and occurred in 13 animals each, followed by Cooperia acutispiculum and an Onchocerca sp. (9 animals each). The remaining nematodes were present in 4 (17%) or fewer of the antelope. C. neitzi was the most numerous nematode, a total of 3,564 being recovered from all the antelope, followed by C. acutispiculum (2,552) and H. vegliai (1,050). Individual total worm burdens varied from 4-1,326 with 2 kudu harbouring no worms. The mean burden of 399 worms was considered negligible. A single kudu was shot in the Namib-Naukluft Park in the south of the country. This animal harboured no parasites.     

Spongiform encephalopathy in an arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) and a greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)

Clinical, pathological and epidemiological details of scrapie-like encephalopathies are described in an arabian oryx and a greater kudu. Clinical signs included ataxia and loss of condition with a short, progressive clinical course (22 and three days, respectively). Histopathological examination of the brains revealed spongiform encephalopathy characteristic of that observed in scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). It seems probable that these cases have a common aetiology with BSE. Scrapie-like spongiform encephalopathies have now been described in five species of exotic artiodactyls in Britain indicating a, hitherto inapparent, wider range of ruminant species as natural hosts for these diseases.     

Selective predation and prey class behaviour as possible mechanisms explaining cheetah impacts on kudu demographics

A number of predator–prey studies show that certain prey demographic classes are targeted over others. The possible mechanisms driving these effects can be two-fold. Firstly, a preference for a certain demographic class results in selective predation by a predator. Secondly, different demographic classes exhibit varied behaviour and thus susceptibility to predation risk. To test these mechanisms, a study was conducted on Samara Private Game Reserve to investigate the potential impact cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) predation has had on the kudu (Tragelaphus strepciseros) population. Kudu age and sex data were collected across both predator-present and predator-absent sections using a spotlight-count method. Results suggest that juvenile kudu and subadult male kudu are selectively hunted by cheetah. This was reflected in significantly lower proportions of these two demographic classes within the predator-present section (both 6.0%, respectively) compared with the predator-absent section (16.8% and 17.4%, respectively). These findings indicate that the shift in the demographics of the kudu population within Samara could be explained by a combination of these two mechanisms.     

Estradiol and progesterone metabolite concentration in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) feces.

Assays of reproductive hormone metabolites require validation in each animal species. For validation of methodology in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), fecal samples were collected from females that had been injected by blowgun with estradiol, progesterone, or a control substance. Analysis by radioimmunoassay revealed that estradiol and pregnanediol were more abundant fecal metabolites of estrogens and progestins than were estrone or progesterone. Peak excretion rates of estradiol and pregnanediol occurred within 12 and 24 hr of injection, respectively. Ovulation time was estimated by measuring the frequency of occurrence of eight behavior patterns, including copulation. Profiles were compiled for three deer over the course of estrus and early pregnancy for estradiol, estrone, progesterone, and pregnanediol using radioimmunoassay. Pregnanediol was excreted at concentrations about 1,000 times higher than those of the other three fecal steroid metabolites, and pregnanediol differed in concentration during estrus, the luteal phase, and early pregnancy. Consequently, a simpler enzyme immunoassay was adapted and used to measure pregnanediol levels over the course of estrus and early pregnancy for seven deer. Measurement of fecal pregnanediol is useful for monitoring reproductive events in female white-tailed deer.     

The rumen ciliates of greater kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros (Pallas) from South Africa and Zimbabwe with a description of one new species

Eighteen species of the family Ophryoscoiecidae, representing three genera, and three species of the family Isotrichidae representing two genera, were found in the rumina of kudu from the Republic of South Africa and Zimbabwe. One new ophryoscolecid Entodinium carinatum is described. Certain aspects of the taxonomy of Diplodinium archon, Entodinium longinucleatum and Entodinium dilobum are discussed     

The ecological potential of the kudu for commercial production in savanna regions

Abstract

This paper considers the choice of a browsing ungulate to supplement cattle in savanna regions susceptible to problems of bush encroachment, and evaluates the kudu in particular. Relevant aspects of its ecology considered include (i) the vegetation components utilized at different seasons and in different areas, with regard to principal food species, reserve dry season species, rejected plant species and potential food limitations; (ii) social grouping patterns and home range extent; (iii) population densities, reproductive parameters, survival rates and population dynamics in relation to rainfall; (iv) impact on the vegetation of browsing and branch breakage. Features of the kudu are compared with those of other browsing ungulates, including giraffe, eland, impala and goats. It is concluded that the kudu is a prime candidate for inclusion alongside cattle in mixed species ranching enterprises in most regions of savanna vegetation.     

Abomasal impaction in captive bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus)

Fatal abomasal impaction, often combined with omasal impaction, was diagnosed in 11 bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) from five different zoologic collections in the United States between 1981 and 2009. Nine of 11 cases occurred in young females (10 mo-7 yr old) and typical clinical signs prior to diagnosis or death included partial or complete anorexia, dehydration, and scant fecal production. Although the clinical histories in several of the earlier cases are incomplete, clinical signs were known to begin shortly after an anesthetic event in five of 11 bongo (45%). Pedigree analysis indicates that affected bongo were descendants of multiple founders and not from a single family line, suggesting that the development of abomasal impaction is not a strictly inheritable trait. Treatment, when attempted, was variable and included abomasotomy and removal of impacted ingesta, drug therapy (prokinetic drugs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories, antimicrobials), fluid therapy, and administration of oral lubricants or intralesional stool softeners. Based on the outcomes in the cases presented here, the prognosis for bongo with abomasal impaction is considered poor to grave.     

Fecal steroid evaluation to monitor reproductive status in wild ungulate females using enzyme immunoassay commercial kits

Analysis of reproductive hormones in fecal samples is necessary for the noninvasive monitoring of reproductive status in free-ranging species. The aim of the present study was to establish an easy noninvasive method to monitor reproductive status in wild ungulate females. Feces were collected daily, weekly, or three or four times a week directly from the soil for a period ranging from 1 to 9.8 mo. Fecal estradiol and progestagens were monitored in nine wild ungulate females (Barbary sheep, Ammotragus lervia [n = 3]; European bison, Bison bonasus [n = 1]; auroch, Bos taurus primigenius [n = 2]; sitatunga, Tragelaphus spekii gratus [n = 2]; and Indian rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis [n = 1]) by using commercially available enzyme immunoassay kits prepared for human serum or plasma. In the species evaluated in this study, luteal phase, abortion, and gestation patterns corresponded closely with changes in fecal progestagens. Luteal phase and gestation values differed significantly (P < 0.001) from basal values, whereas progestagens values after abortion were not significantly different (P > 0.05) from basal values. For estradiol excretory patterns, follicular phase and pregnancy values differed significantly (P < 0.001) from basal values, but differences between values after abortion and basal values were not significant (P > 0.05); length of estrous cycles were clearly defined through estradiol data. This study demonstrates that ovarian function in the wild ungulate females studied can be monitored by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Therefore, ELISA methodologies used here could be a practical alternative to other ELISAs that require more complex procedures or whose commercial availability is difficult.     

Changes in fecal progestagen profile after excretion in miniature pigs

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the fecal progestagen (progesterone and its metabolites) levels of miniature pigs would change after excretion at room temperature. Our initial investigation focused on the correlations between the fecal progestagen concentrations with and without ether extraction and between the plasma progesterone and fecal progestagen concentrations in order to develop an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for fecal progestagen without ether extraction. There were significant correlations between fecal progestagen concentrations with and without ether extraction (r=0.880) and between fecal progestagen concentrations without ether extraction and plasma progesterone (r=0.763). The fecal progestagen concentration obtained by ELISA without ether extraction was almost identical to that obtained with ether extraction. These results validate the ELISA method without ether extraction, which was therefore used for the latter experiment. Fecal samples collected from the pigs were preserved for 0-24 h at room temperature, and then their fecal progestagen concentrations were measured. The fecal samples preserved for 0 to 24 h were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ELISA. The concentrations of all samples significantly increased with time after preservation. The progestagen concentration of fresh feces (0 h) with high progestagen concentration (>1000 ng/g) increased significantly after 3 h. The concentration increased significantly after 12 h for fresh feces containing about 500 ng/g progestagen. HPLC analysis is showed that the fecal progesterone concentration, but not its other metabolites, doubled 24 h after excretion compared with the concentration at 0 h. These results suggest that dynamic changes in the profile of progesterone metabolites occur in feces after excretion.