Retrospective evaluation of measles antibody titers in vaccinated captive gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

Retrospective analyses of banked serum samples and medical records from captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at Lincoln Park Zoo showed that vaccination of gorillas with a human vaccine induced antibody production. No significant relationship was found between the groups that received one, two, or three vaccinations and the probability of seroconversion. These data also suggested that antibodies in western lowland gorillas persist for at least 11 yr. This information is useful in the assessment of vaccination protocols for captive gorillas and in the implementation of preventive care in wild gorilla populations.     

Management of reactive arthritis in a juvenile gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) with long-term sulfasalazine therapy.

A juvenile western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) experienced recurrent fever, lethargy, diarrhea, and/or arthritis starting at age 6 mo. During an episode at age 15 mo, Shigella sp. was isolated from diarrheic feces. At age 41 mo, reactive arthritis was diagnosed. In addition, the gorilla's growth was retarded. All arthritic attacks were managed symptomatically prior to age 4 yr, at which time a severe episode precipitated the implementation of therapy with sulfasalazine, an arthritis suppressive medication. Examination 27 mo later revealed cessation of progressive joint pathology although the animal exhibited decreased range of motion in most joints. The gorilla has been on sulfasalazine therapy for 4 yr without lameness. Growth has resumed, and there has been no radiographic evidence of progressive joint degeneration. Immunogenetic analysis of whole blood obtained at age 68 mo identified the gorilla major histocompatibility class I allele, Gogo-B*0101, which has limited nucleotide sequence similarity to HLA-B27, an allele associated with postinfection reactive arthritis in humans. Sulfasalazine therapy effectively managed reactive arthritis in this gorilla and should be considered for similarly frequently affected animals. Juvenile gorillas, in populations with a history of clinical shigellosis and/or postdiarrhea arthritis, may benefit from prophylactic sulfasalazine therapy after episodes of bacterial enterocolitis. Sulfasalazine therapy should be considered in all gorillas, juvenile and adult, experiencing confirmed Shigella sp.-associated enterocolitis.     

Cholesterol values in free-ranging gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla and Gorilla beringei) and Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus).

Cholesterol concentrations in captive gorillas and orangutans vary widely within species and average approximately 244 mg/dl for gorillas and 169 mg/dl for orangutans as published previously. The International Species Inventory System reports higher concentrations of 275 and 199 mg/dl for gorillas and orangutans, respectively. It is unknown whether these values were typical, influenced by captive management, or both. To answer this question, banked serum samples from free-ranging mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei), western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), and Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) were analyzed for total cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations. Mountain gorillas did not differ significantly from free-ranging western lowland gorillas in cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, or low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations, indicating mountain gorilla values could be a model for western lowland gorillas. Captive gorilla total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than in free-ranging groups. Triglyceride concentrations for captive gorillas were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the male mountain and western lowland gorillas, but they were not significantly different from the female mountain gorillas. Captive orangutan total cholesterol concentrations were only higher (P < 0.05) than the free-ranging female orangutans, whereas captive orangutan low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than both free-ranging male and female orangutans. Calculated and measured low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were compared for all free-ranging animals and were significantly different (P < 0.05) for all groups, indicating Friedewald's equation for calculating low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is not appropriate for use with nonfasted apes. The higher total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations in captive apes may predispose them to cardiovascular disease and might be attributed to diets, limited energy expenditure, and genetics.     

M-MODE ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC PARAMETERS AND INDICES IN THE NORMAL GERMAN SHEPHERD DOG

M-mode echocardiographic measurements were made from 50 healthy German Shepherd dogs (30 males and 20 females). The dogs were awake and unsedated, in right lateral recumbent position. The following parameters were measured on the echocardiographic images: interventricular septal thickness at end-diastole (IVSd), interventricular septal thickness at end-systole (IVSs), left ventricular internal dimension at end-diastole (LVIDd), left ventricular internal dimension at end-systole (LVIDs), left ventricular posterior wall thickness at end-diastole (LVPWd), left ventricular posterior wall thickness at end-systole (LVPWs), left atrial dimension (LAD), aortic root dimension (AOD), left atrial to aortic root ratio (LAD/AOD), right ventricular internal dimension at end-diastole (RVID), amplitude of mitral valve excursion (DE amplitude), velocity of mitral valve opening (D-E slope), and velocity of mitral valve closure (E-F slope). Fractional shortening (FS) was also calculated. The effect of gender and age on each echocardiographic parameter was analyzed and the relationship between body weight (BW) and each parameter was also investigated. There was a significant relationship between gender and LVPW in systole and diastole and FS. Significant association was also found between BW and IVS, LVID, and LVPW in systole and diastole, FS, LAD, AOD, RVID, DE amplitude, and D-E slope of the mitral valve.     

Resolution of a hyperprolactinemia in a western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

Prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas are one of the most common causes of infertility in women. Prolactin plays an important role in lactation and is involved in producing some of the normal mammalian breeding and maternal behaviors. Elevated serum prolactin concentrations can adversely affect the reproductive cycle in females by inhibiting the normal lutenizing hormone surge that stimulates ovulation. A 17-year-old western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) presented with low fertility and hyperprolactinemia. An MRI confirmed a pituitary mass and treatment was initiated with cabergoline. Following 8 mo of treatment, mass size decreased and serum prolactin was within normal limits. The gorilla began to engage in normal breeding behavior, and within 6 mo of completing treatment, was pregnant. Hyperprolactinemia, secondary to presumed microprolactinoma, may be more common among breeding-age gorillas than is currently diagnosed and in humans is an easily diagnosed and treatable condition.     

Resting heart rate and tympanic temperature in operant conditioned western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

The conscious, resting heart rate and body temperature of healthy western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) is not reported in the literature. To obtain this information, two clinically healthy adult male western lowland gorillas in a training program were conditioned to allow auscultation and obtain tympanic temperatures. The mean heart rate was 73.8 +/- 8.96 beats per minute (n = 176), and it was lower than mean heart rate reported in studies on anesthetized gorillas. The mean tympanic temperature was 35.5 +/- 0.7 degrees C (95.9 +/- 1.23 degrees F) (n = 209). The right tympanic temperature (rtt) and left tympanic temperature (ltt) were recorded separately for one gorilla. A small but statistically significant difference was present between the mean rtt of 35.8 +/- 0.7 degrees C (96.5 +/- 1.2 degrees F) (n = 137) and the mean ltt of 35.7 +/- 0.8 degrees C (96.2 +/- 1.3 degrees F) (n = 121).     

Cataract surgery with foldable intraocular lens implants in captive lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

Two juvenile, male, captive-born lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) with the same father but different mothers developed bilateral cataracts. The cataracts were surgically removed within 6 yr and 3 mo, respectively, of diagnosis, and foldable intraocular lenses were implanted. Although vision was not restored in one eye with a mature, 6-yr-old cataract in gorilla A, surgical intervention on the other eye was performed before a complete cataract developed, and vision was fully restored. Gorilla B was treated at the age of 17 mo, and normal visual development proceeded in both eyes. This animal developed bilateral after-cataract and therefore needed a second intervention in both eyes using Nd:YAG laser treatment. The genetic component of juvenile cataracts should be considered in breeding management programs.     

Severe idiopathic hypocalcemia in a juvenile western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla

A 6-mo-old, male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) was evaluated because of tetany of both hands. The gorilla had alternating periods of constipation, diarrhea, and bloating since birth. A diagnosis of idiopathic hypocalcemia was based on severe hypocalcemia, a normal vitamin D level, response to oral calcium and vitamin D therapy, and eventual resolution. Idiopathic hypocalcemia, an uncommon disease in neonatal humans, should be considered in young gorillas with persistent gastrointestinal problems or acute tetany.     

Diagnosis of hypothyroidism in a western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) using human thyroid-stimulating hormone assay.

Primary hypothyroidism was diagnosed in a 26-yr-old female western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) on the basis of serum levels of thyroxine (T4), free T4, and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) measured by human immunoassays. Compared with clinically normal gorillas, the TSH level (107 mlIU/L) was markedly elevated, and T4 (<14.0 nmol/L) and free T4 (5.0 pmol/L) levels were decreased. Thyroid hypofunction could explain the weight gain, unsettled appetite, anxious behavior, lethargy, and poor intraspecies interactions shown by this gorilla. The antibodies in the commercial immunoassay used in this study apparently cross-reacted with gorilla TSH. Supplementation with levothyroxine sodium was initiated and was followed by a marked decrease in circulating TSH and a noticeable improvement in the animal's physiologic status and activity level.     

Clinical management of a western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) with a cardiac resynchronization therapy device

A 24-yr-old, male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) was diagnosed with congestive heart failure using transesophageal and transthoracic echocardiology. New York Heart Association (NYHA) Class III was assigned to the severity of the condition. Over 16 mo, this progressed to NYHA Class IV despite increasing medical therapy. Repeated evaluations suggested that implantation of a cardiac resynchronization therapy device with a defibrillator (CRT-D) could benefit this animal based on clinical signs and underlying evidence of dyssynchrony and suspected fibrotic myocardial disease. Surgical implantation of leads into the right atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle was accomplished. The CRT-D device was placed under the thoracic pectoral muscles during an initial surgical procedure. Improvement in the gorilla's clinical condition after implantation of the CRT-D device was immediate and dramatic. Subsequent scanning of the device was accomplished through operant conditioning. The data from these device interrogations included stored and real-time cardiac data, which were used to minimize recognized environmental stressors and change device settings. Over 4 yr, case management was critical to successful device use in treatment of the clinical disease. This involved medications, training for device interrogation, exercise to increase activity and improve body condition, and phlebotomy attempts. Dietary management was necessary to manipulate caloric and sodium intake and encourage medication compliance. Cardiac resynchronization therapy device implantation, although requiring specialized equipment and surgical skill, appears to be a viable option for treatment of fibrosing cardiomyopathy with systolic dysfunction in gorillas refractory to medical management. In addition to treatment, this device provides cardiovascular data at rest that could allow for early diagnosis and treatment of gorillas with this and other cardiac conditions in the future. This describes the comprehensive medical, husbandry, and training techniques necessary to successfully manage this intense clinical case in conjunction with intracardiac device therapy.     

Preliminary evaluation of blood lipid profiles in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

Published serum cholesterol values in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) are much higher than human ranges, with a national mean of 7.36 mmol/L (284 mg/dl, n = 863). Complete blood lipid profiles were examined in 15 captive gorillas. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) was found to decrease more rapidly with age than total cholesterol, resulting in an increasing ratio of cholesterol HDL with age. The ratio of apolipoprotein B to apolipoprotein Al also increased with age. Establishment of a database of blood lipid values for captive gorillas with correlative analysis of animals with known atherosclerosis status may help to identify sensitive predictors of coronary heart disease risk.     

Chronic hypertension with subsequent congestive heart failure in a western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

Chronic severe subclinical systemic hypertension was diagnosed in a 28-yr-old male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Thoracic radiography, electrocardiography, and echocardiography revealed an enlarged heart with a hypertrophied left ventricle, mitral regurgitation, and a persistent left bundle branch block. Enalapril, later combined with nifedipine, was of some value in reducing the hypertension, with partial reversal of cardiac enlargement and resolution of the bundle branch block. Two years after initiation of treatment, the gorilla developed lethargy and dyspnea. The diagnosis of heart failure was confirmed under anesthesia; the gorilla did not recover and was euthanized. Postmortem examination confirmed congestive heart failure with chronic, fibrosing cardiomyopathy similar to that in other gorillas.     

Ophthalmic examination of the captive western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

This study examined the captive western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) eye as compared and contrasted with the human eye. Bilateral ophthalmic examinations of western lowland gorillas (n = 5) while under general anesthesia were performed opportunistically, including slit-lamp biomicroscopy, dilated fundus examination, cycloplegic retinoscopy, Schiotz tonometry, corneal diameter and thickness measurements, A-scan and B-scan ultrasonography, keratometry, and cultures of the eyelid margins and bulbar conjunctiva. Mean spherical equivalent refractive error by cycloplegic retinoscopy was +1.20 +/- 0.59 diopters. Mean intraocular pressure by Schiotz tonometry was 12.0 +/- 4.3 mm Hg. Mean optic nerve head cup to disc ratio was 0.42 +/- 0.11. Mean horizontal corneal diameter was 13.4 +/- 0.8 mm, and mean vertical cornea diameter was 12.7 +/- 0.8 mm. Mean central corneal thickness by ultrasound pachymetry was 489 +/- 52 microm. Mean axial length of the eye by A-scan was 22.75 +/- 0.71 mm. Mean lens thickness by A-scan was 4.23 +/- 0.34 mm. Mean anterior chamber depth by A-scan was 4.00 +/- 0.26 mm. Mean keratometry reading was 44.38 +/- 1.64 diopters. Eyelid margin and bulbar conjunctival cultures isolated Candida sp. (n = 5), Staphylococcus aureus (n = 4), Staphylococcus epidermidis (n = 3), Staphylococcus saccharolyticus (n = 3), and Micrococcus sp. (n = 3). This study suggests important similarities between western lowland gorilla and human eyes. These similarities may allow diagnostics, techniques, and equipment for human eye surgery, such as those used for cataract extraction and intraocular lens implantation, to be successfully utilized for gorillas.     

Analysis of urine from free-ranging mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) for normal physiologic values.

Voided urine samples were collected from apparently healthy free-living mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) and analyzed for normal physiologic values. Mountain gorillas were found to have a high urinary pH (x = 8.45) and low specific gravity (x = 1.013). Commercial dipsticks appear to be unreliable for the measurement of specific gravity and leukocytes. The establishment of urinary reference intervals should aid in the noninvasive detection of certain diseases in the mountain gorilla and assist with prompt and effective decisions regarding the immobilization and treatment of individual gorillas.     

COMPARABILITY OF LEFT VENTRICULAR M-MODE ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY IN DOGS PERFORMED IN LONG-AXIS AND SHORT-AXIS

The purpose of this prospective study was to determine comparability of left ventricular (LV) M-mode echocardiographic indices derived from right parasternal long-axis and short-axis imaging planes. In 104 dogs (37 healthy dogs and 67 dogs with heart disease), LV M-mode echocardiograms were recorded from both long-axis and short-axis views and interventricular septum thickness (IVS), left ventricular internal dimensions (LVD), left ventricular posterior wall thickness (LVPW), and LV shortening fraction (FS) were measured. Statistical analysis included paired t-test and graphical analysis to assess agreement between the two methods of data acquisition. Mean LVD in systole and diastole and mean IVS in systole were significantly (P<0.001) larger when measured from short-axis recordings compared to long-axis measurements. An increased magnitude of measurement resulted in increased differences between the methods for LV dimensions and fractional shortening. Differences between the two methods were small and within clinically acceptable limits in normal dogs. However, in 23 (34%) of the dogs with cardiac abnormality, one or more LV M-mode derived dimension obtained from one imaging plane did not agree sufficiently closely with the same measure from the other plane. Only for measurement of FS was there good agreement between methods in dogs with cardiac disease. Therefore, with the exception of FS, data gained from LV short-axis and long-axis M-mode recordings should not be used interchangeably in dogs with cardiac disease.     

Two-dimensional,long-axis echocardiographic ratios for assessment of left atrial and ventricular size in dogs

Introduction

Left ventricular (LV) and left atrial (LA) enlargement affect management and outcome of dogs with cardiac disease. Short-axis, two-dimensional echocardiographic (2DE) images, indexed to the aorta (Ao), are frequently used to identify cardiomegaly. Long-axis images offer complementary views of the left heart.

Who killed Porthos? Genetic tracking of a gorilla death

We describe a novel application of “forensic” genetics to study a key demographic event in a population of wild gorillas. We used microsatellite genotyping and non‐invasively collected DNA samples to identify one individual western lowland gorilla as being most likely to have caused the death of another in Lopé National Park, Gabon. Data from relatively few genotypes permitted the identification of female transfer events and the interpretation of individual behavior that was previously impossible using observational methods, thus providing rare behavioral data on an elusive forest‐dwelling species. Importantly, this study highlights the need for future studies of dispersal and local population structuring in forest populations, and more accurate population census methods. Genetic studies focusing on individual identification may play a valuable role in future gorilla conservation efforts.     

Echocardiography and conventional Doppler examination in clinically healthy adult Cavalier King Charles Spaniels: Effect of body weight,age, and gender,and establishment of reference intervals

ObjectivesThe objectives of this study were (1) to assess the potential effect of body weight (BW), age, and gender on the most commonly used echocardiographic and conventional Doppler variables in a large population of healthy Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (CKCS), and (2) to establish the corresponding reference intervals (RI).Animals134 healthy adult CKCS.MethodsUltrasound examinations were performed by trained observers in awake dogs. M-mode variables included left ventricular (LV) end-diastolic and end-systolic diameters, LV free wall and interventricular septal thicknesses at end-diastole and end-systole, and LV fractional shortening (FS%). The left atrium (LA) and aortic (Ao) diameters were measured using a 2D method, and the LA/Ao was calculated. Pulsed-wave Doppler variables included peak systolic aortic and pulmonary flow velocities, mitral E and A waves, and E/A ratio. Effects of BW, age, and gender on these 15 variables were tested using a general linear model, and RIs were determined by applying the statistical procedures recommended by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute.ResultsA significant BW effect was observed for all variables, except LA/Ao, FS%, and mitral E/A ratio. A significant but negligible effect of gender and age was also observed for 5/15 and 4/15 of the tested variables, respectively. Only the BW effect on M-mode variables was considered as clinically relevant and the corresponding regression-based RIs were calculated.ConclusionsBody weight should be taken into account when interpreting echocardiographic values in CKCS, except for LA/Ao, FS%, and mitral E/A ratio.     

Echocardiographic indices of age- and gender-dependent cardiac remodeling over the adult lifespan in Irish Wolfhounds

Introduction

Characterizing age- and gender-dependent cardiac remodeling over the adult lifespan in Irish Wolfhounds (IWs) by echocardiography. In people, a life-long cardiac remodeling process has been demonstrated.

Gastrointestinal parasites of mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) in the Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda.

Ninety-eight fecal samples were collected from 74 free-living mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) from the Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda, between July 1995 and January 1997 and examined for parasites by Sheather's sugar and zinc sulfate flotation methods, trichrome staining, and larval cultures. All samples contained at least one parasite. Seventeen endoparasites were identified, including eight protozoa, seven nematodes, one cestode, and one trematode. Two species of arthropod mite were also recovered from the fecal samples. Parasites observed on fecal examinations included strongyle/trichostrongyle-type eggs (72/74) (representing Oesphagostomum sp., Trichostrongylus sp., Hyostrongylus spp., and possibly Murshidia sp.), Strongyloides sp. (1/74), Trichuris trichiura (2/74), Probstmayria sp. (7/74), Anoplocephala sp. (63/74), Entamoeba hartmanni cysts and trophozoites (19/70), Endolimax nana cysts (31/70), Iodamoeba buetschlii cysts (11/70), Endolimax nana or Iodamoeba buetschlii trophozoites (63/70). Entamoeba coli cysts and trophozoites (14/70), Entamoeba histolytica trophozoite (1/70), Chilomastix sp. cysts and trophozoites (31/70), and Giardia sp. cysts (2/70). In addition, one ascarid and one trematode egg were seen. There were no significant differences in the prevalence of parasites between males and females and between age groups: however, infants and juveniles appeared to have a lower prevalence of Anoplocephala gorillae, and the silverbacked males appeared to have a higher prevalence of Probstmayria sp. Parasite prevalence was consistent among the five social groups studied except Susa group had a significantly lower prevalence of Anoplocephala gorillae. Trichuris trichiura, Strongyloides sp., Chilomastix sp., and Endolimax nana were identified for the first time in this population, and it is possible that these parasites were of human origin. Although there were no obvious clinical effects due to the presence of these parasites, six parasites identified (Trichuris trichiura, Strongyloides sp., Oesphagostomum sp., Trichostrongylus sp., Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia sp.) could potentially be pathogenic. Some of the parasite products and cultured larvae could not be speciated.