Cattle are cash generating assets for mixed smallholder farms in the Eastern Amazon

The presence of cattle in the Amazon region is controversial in terms of their ecological suitability and profitability compared with crops. Nevertheless, they are widely distributed in the study area in north-eastern Pará and, contrary to the common image of cattle on large ranches, a high proportion of them are kept on smallholder farms. To explain their presence, cattle are assumed to have benefits beyond physical production, such as complementing resource use or representing capital. To test this hypothesis, the costs and benefits of the three main agricultural activities, cattle, cassava and black pepper production, in terms of land, labour and capital productivity, were recorded in 37 small farms over a period of 15 months. To provide a longer perspective, benefits and costs of these activities were calculated for their assumed lifetime, which in the case of cattle, assumed a stable herd, derived from a deterministic herd model. The resultant values for land, labour and capital productivity of cattle were much lower than the values derived from direct observations during the study period, and were not as high as those for cassava and black pepper. Furthermore, the analysis of resource use in the farms showed that cattle production was not usually integrated with cropping activities, did not improve the use of available labour, and competed for land. Therefore, there had to be a reason for keeping cattle beyond their physical productivity. It was deduced to be their functional quality. Cattle could be disposed of quickly and easily at any time, in order to acquire large sums of cash or the equivalent in kind. The liquidity derived from keeping living stock was not matched by other agricultural activities or by the financial market. Hence, cattle turned out to be the best instrument of finance for the smallholder. Farmers were not interested in the continuous development of their herds, or sustainable production practices, and favoured low input management. Consequently, development plans relying on long-term, continuous commitments to pasture and cattle management are inappropriate. Instead, research and extension work should focus on simple, flexible and low-cost improvements to cattle keeping on crop-livestock smallholder farms, until credit programmes are available that replace the financing function of cattle.     

Application of a simple ecological sustainability simulator (SESS) as a management tool in the semi-arid rangelands of northeastern Mexico

We use a simple ecological sustainability simulator (SESS) [Diaz-Solis, H., Kothmann, M.M., Hamilton, W.T., Grant, W.E., 2003. A simple ecological sustainability simulator (SESS) for stocking rate management on semi-arid grazinglands, 76, 655] for rangelands with mean annual precipitation of 500 mm to evaluate tendencies in range productivity and cattle production under four management options: (1) supplemental feeding, (2) short-term reduction of stocking rate, (3) early weaning, and (4) adjustment of breeding seasons. We have made five modifications to SESS for the present paper. (1) Cattle mortality now occurs each month as a function of body condition. (2) Cows that are not pregnant 2 months after the end of the breeding season are sold. (3) Forage intake is calculated separately for each cohort of cows. (4) Cows that have been sold or have died are replaced just before the beginning of each breeding season (except for the short-term reduction of stocking rate strategy). (5) The calculation of stocking rate now includes cows, bulls, nursing calves, weaned heifers less than 20 months of age, and pre-reproductive heifers aged 20 months or older.Simulation results suggest the four management options might be ranked from best to worst, in terms of increasing cattle production while maintaining range productivity, as: (1) short-term reduction of stocking rate, (2) adjustment of breeding seasons, (3) early weaning, and (4) supplementation. Short-term reduction of high stocking rates reduces the deterioration of range productivity because of the reduction in the number of stock. Adjustment of breeding seasons such that periods of highest energy requirements of cows and calves coincide with periods of highest forage production increases percentage pregnancy. Early weaning of calves improves the body condition of cows and increases annual production of weaned calves, but does not reduce the stocking rate and thus does not improve range productivity. Supplemental feeding, and other management practices that artificially sustain herbivores, break the negative feedback that promotes good range productivity and maintains long-term system stability. In general, strategies to increase cattle production in semi-arid rangelands should be based on the improvement of natural forage production.     

Sustainability of bean production systems on steep lands in Costa Rica

Responding to changes in rural-urban linkages and government policies, bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production systems in Costa Rica are undergoing transitions. Impacts of changes in bean production systems on environmental and economic sustainability were analysed at the field, farm and policy levels. A combination of interviews, agronomic surveys, on-farm experiments, and secondary information was used. Changes in agronomic and economic conditions over time were assessed by conducting agronomic surveys and experiments on farms representing a range of land-use intensities. Trade-offs between productivity and stability were quantified using Modified Stability Analysis. The adoption of land and agrochemical-intensive methods by resource-poor farmers cultivating steep lands resulted in decreased environmented and economic sustainability. Farmers with adequate resources were able to maintain economic viability by transferring land out of beans and into other commodities, particularly cattle. However, this shift in resource use decreased social equity by decreasing farm labour opportunities for smallholders and landless farmers and diminishing land available for tenants. These studies indicate that the impact of technology introduction on farming system sustainability can be assessed effectively by conducting integrated socioeconomic and agronomic analyses across farms representing various land-use practices and intensities.     

基于能值分析的设施葡萄可持续性评估系统设计

以设施葡萄为研究对象,基于数据库技术、网络技术和能值分析理论,系统分析了设施葡萄栽培的业务流程,构建了可持续性评估模型,采用面向对象的C#语言开发了C/S架构的设施葡萄可持续性评估系统,并在河北省昌黎县葡萄种植基地进行了系统测试.结果表明:该系统是运用信息化技术解决葡萄生产领域实际问题的有益尝试,可以有效地评估设施葡萄栽培系统的可持续性,辨识影响其可持续发展的关键因素;促进葡萄园生产的规范化管理,提高设施葡萄产业可持续发展能力.     

Effects of silvopastoral areas on milk production at dual-purpose cattle farms at the semi-humid old agricultural frontier in central Nicaragua

In extensive cattle production systems, the composition of grazing areas may significantly influence productivity. In dual-purpose cattle production systems in the lowland tropics, pasture lands with trees, so-called silvopastoral areas, are considered as being important, particularly to facilitate the management of crossbred European native cattle. The aim of the study was to quantify the effects of silvopastoral areas on production at dual-purpose cattle farms in the semi-humid lowlands of central Nicaragua. The relationships between seasonal milk production and herd data, and the proportions of land use types were examined for 74 farms by stepwise regression analysis.     

全国种粮养牛发展分析

1951—2010年全国的粮食总产量是波动性增长。波动原因是粮食种植面积的波动,增长原因是粮食种植技术的进步。2010年全国粮食供给已是“北粮南运”。东北地区是全国的“粮仓”,黄淮海地区次之,长江中下游地区人均粮食产量只略高于全国平均水平。全国秸秆养牛已由畜力生产转为肉、奶生产,但人均水平较低。全国种粮养牛今后发展的目标应是人均粮食产量适度、粮食产量结构合理和秸秆养牛规模适量,其实现途径是科学化种粮养牛、综合开发种粮养牛乡村以及保证开发方针政策的正确。      

An integrated sustainability assessment of mediterranean sheep farms with different degrees of intensification

In the European Mediterranean basin, pasture-based sheep farming systems are mostly located in marginal/High Nature Value areas. These production systems are multifunctional, and their economic, environmental and social roles are equally important and recognised by policy makers and by society. However, the number of animals and holdings is decreasing, and there is great uncertainty regarding the reproducibility of these farming systems, which depends on many internal and external farm factors and their interactions. The aim of this paper was to perform a comprehensive assessment of sustainability in different sheep farming systems in north eastern Spain using the MESMIS framework. We followed a case-study approach to perform an in-depth investigation of 4 sheep meat and dairy farms with different intensities of reproduction management. Critical points of sustainability, including weaknesses and opportunities, were obtained using a participatory process with stakeholders (farmers and technical advisers) that resulted in the selection of 37 sustainability indicators that were classified according to the systemic attributes defined by MESMIS (productivity, stability, self-reliance, adaptability, equity) and according to the classical sustainability pillars (social, economic and environmental). Some underlying patterns could be observed when analysing sustainability pillars, attributes and indicators. A positive relationship between productivity and intensification level in meat farms was observed; however, economic sustainability was determined not only by on-farm but also by off-farm activities. The economic efficiency of farming (without considering subsidies) was mainly explained by the capture of added value in the dairy systems and the combination of high animal productivity as well as high forage and feed self-sufficiency in the meat systems. Social issues were also central to explaining sustainability at the farm level, including the prospects of generational turnover and the manner in which farmers perceive and rate their activity. A clear trade-off between economic and environmental indicators was observed, i.e., the higher the economic sustainability, the lower the environmental sustainability. Each farm scored differently for diverse attributes, pillars and individual indicators. The scores differed according to size, structure, resource availability and managerial skills, which implies that it would be difficult to apply a holistic sustainability analysis to farming systems instead of individual farms. A number of methodological questions arose during the evaluation process relative to the stakeholders perception of these indicators, their relevance and meaning, the reference values for comparison, or their validity to assess sustainability across spatial and temporal scales. These questions are discussed in the paper.     

Unravelling the rationale of `overgrazing' and stocking rates in the beef production systems of Central Brazil using a bi-criteria compromise programming model

In Central Brazil, the long-term sustainability of beef cattle systems is under threat over vast tracts of farming areas, as more than half of the 50 million hectares of sown pastures are suffering from degradation. Overgrazing practised to maintain high stocking rates is regarded as one of the main causes. High stocking rates are deliberate and crucial decisions taken by the farmers, which appear paradoxical, even irrational given the state of knowledge regarding the consequences of overgrazing. The phenomenon however appears inextricably linked with the objectives that farmers hold. In this research those objectives were elicited first and from their ranking two, `asset value of cattle (representing cattle ownership)' and `present value of economic returns', were chosen to develop an original bi-criteria Compromise Programming model to test various hypotheses postulated to explain the overgrazing behaviour. As part of the model a pasture productivity index is derived to estimate the pasture recovery cost. Different scenarios based on farmers' attitudes towards overgrazing, pasture costs and capital availability were analysed. The results of the model runs show that benefits from holding more cattle can outweigh the increased pasture recovery and maintenance costs. This result undermines the hypothesis that farmers practise overgrazing because they are unaware or uncaring about overgrazing costs. An appropriate approach to the problem of pasture degradation requires information on the economics, and its interplay with farmers' objectives, for a wide range of pasture recovery and maintenance methods. Seen within the context of farmers' objectives, some level of overgrazing appears rational. Advocacy of the simple `no overgrazing' rule is an insufficient strategy to maintain the long-term sustainability of the beef production systems in Central Brazil.     

基于能值分析的辽宁省凌河口湿地资源价值定量化评估

应用H.T.Odum创立的生态经济系统能值分析的理论和方法,对凌河口湿地生态经济系统价值进行科学的定量评估。评估结果:生态服务以及水产方面货币价值较大,经济效益显著,能值分别为1.001×1021 sej和4.349×1018 sej,货币价值为4.094×109美元和1.709×107美元。能值分析结果表明,应重点关注水产资源的合理建设及将生态服务效应的保护利用放在首位,为保护经济和生态环境可持续发展提供了价值参考。此外,保护凌河口湿地应注重生态系统整体性,使之向良好稳定的方向发展。     

Emergy assessment of a coffee farm in Brazilian Cerrado considering in a broad form the environmental services, negative externalities and fair price

A new way of thinking about conservation is represented by the preservation of native areas and the payment for their environmental services. In the present study emergy synthesis was applied to assess the environmental performance of a coffee farm located in Coromandel, Minas Gerais, in the Brazilian Cerrado. The farm produces green coffee for exportation, and holds an area with native vegetation of 80 ha, larger than that required by Brazilian legislation. The assessment of the native area within the farm was carried out in order to determine its environmental sustainability. The emergy ternary diagram was employed to interpret the results, which show that a farm with 54 ha of productive area must be matched with 200 ha of native vegetation for medium term sustainability. The Cerrado’s farm production is primarily for export, and an evaluation of the environment and economic changes with respect to importing countries was performed. Emergy synthesis is proposed to calculate the price of environmental services balancing trades in the international market. A discussion of the problem of assigning payments for environmental services is presented.     

Simulation of production alternatives in ranching systems in Togo

A simulation model developed by CIAT, Columbia, was used to analyse the economics of large-scale beef production alternatives, comprising different breeds, types of pasture and levels of technical efficiency, for the West African savanna belt based on price-cost relationships in Togo, 1976. With intensive ranching systems an acceptable financial return is only achieved when high productivity levels of the herds are obtained while using low-cost production techniques. These systems have large finance requirements and, thus, involve a high managerial risk. Extensive systems (similar to nomadic systems) with minimum investments in fencing and artificial pastures, seem to be the most profitable alternatives. Available stock numbers are the most binding constraint for livestock development at a regional level, hindering the full exploitation of the main natural resource. Further analysis should be undertaken to see whether sheep and goats, with their higher rates of reproduction, could not significantly accelerate the utilisation of understocked land resources.     

A mathematical programming model for improvement planning in a semi-subsistence farm

In some semi-subsistence agriculture systems, long fallows have traditionally been used to maintain soil fertility, but fallow periods are often shortened because of increased pressure on land, resulting in reduced crop yields. In such cases crop yields can often be increased by adopting agricultural methods based on the use of new crop varieties, fertilisers and herbicides. These improved cultivation techniques must be introduced over a number of years, but the transition process has received little attention in evaluating improvement of semi-subsistence cultivation systems. In this paper a mathematical programming approach is developed for planning the introduction of improved cultivation systems in a semi-subsistence farm in northern Chiapas, Mexico. This new approach first uses a linear programming model to determine capital dependent steady state cultivation policies. Results from this steady model are then incorporated into a multiperiod mixed integer programming model for determining steady state policy and the associated improvement plan.     

Why energy productivity is increasing: An I-O analysis of Swedish agriculture

A combination of process and I-O analyses is used to investigate relationships between several kinds of energy uses, product compositions and technical change in Swedish agriculture. Estimates are based on comparisons of three development stages in the transition period from 1956 to 1993. Energy productivity has changed dramatically. Cash crops and non-ruminant animals have been more efficient in their use of support energy, compared to other farm sectors; all sectors have increased their solar energy productivity. Support energy from fertilisers is increasingly a major contributor to solar energy productivity giving 20 kWh biomass per kWh input. Manure has become marginal as a substitute for external energy inputs through fertiliser. Transforming a larger population of produced biomass to useful products outside agriculture, changing from ruminants to non-ruminants production or finding fuel uses of manure will increase energy productivity and sustainability. Contradictions with recent analyses of energy or sustainability may be explained by differences in the perceived influences of technical and structural change or earlier incomplete systems approaches.     

A risk efficiency analysis of backgrounding and finishing steers on pasture in Saskatchewan, Canada

This paper combines an agricultural production decision support tool, GrassGro, with economic risk efficiency theory to examine several cattle feeding options that include various grazing systems for three climatic environments in Saskatchewan, Canada. Historical weather data were used to simulate a distribution of forage and cattle production data for each of several grazing systems during a 21-year period, 1978–1998. Price variability was included by varying year 2000 prices using historical price margin changes between the buying and selling weights of cattle. The risk efficiency analysis was completed using the Mean Standard Deviation (MSD) framework, and stochastic dominance principles.

Results of the study suggested that feeding systems, which included grazing, were economically competitive with traditional feedlot feeding systems and grain farming. Finishing cattle on pasture with the addition of a barley supplement was an attractive option, especially when high pasture productivity can be achieved. In all locations, more intense systems that included pasture fertilization and provision of an energy supplement, improved production and risk efficiency. Although the average net returns of all these feeding simulations were negative, the returns of traditional grain crops were even more negative. It is these negative returns in grain operations that lead to the incentive for producers to diversify into cattle production. Despite the negative net returns, the cash flow (range −$15.59 to $407.54 ha⁻¹) was mostly positive in all three locations.     

Maasai herd and flock structures in relation to livestock wealth,climate and development

Information was obtained on the structure of the herds and flocks of a sample of 41 households on the three Maasai Group Ranches in Kenya. The purpose of the survey was to contribute to an intensive study of the livestock production system, and also to assess the amount of information that could be obtained from a herd structure study on its own. Differences in herd structure were related to the livestock wealth of the household, the stage of development of the Group Ranch as well as to the variation in climate, and production alternatives.Data from more than 5100 cattle revealed that Maasai herds contained less steers in 1982 (18%) than in 1968 (22%). The proportion of mature steers had also dropped from 5% (1968) to 2% (1982), with maximum valves of 3·2% on the most developed ranch and 2% for the wealthiest stratum of households. A high percentage of females had been retained (56%) giving a herd structure characteristic of subsistence production with milk as a primary output. This structure also caters for a strong market in immature animals and gives the herd a high potential for recovery after a drought. There appeared to be a trend towards increased use of introduced bulls, notably Sahiwal on the Small East African Zebu, with increased Group Ranch Development. However, this trend was confounded by a decreasing aridity gradient with increased development.On two of the ranches for which 1968 counts were available, cattle numbers were 119% of their previous value whereas small stock were 470%. The reason appears to be that increased sedentarisation without adequate range management has resulted in a severe reduction in grasses, and their replacement by forbs. These plants are more palatable to small stock which are better able to exploit the degraded habitat.Information from more than 2730 sheep and 2300 goats revealed that poor households preferred goats and richer households, sheep. The Small East African Goat was ubiquitous, but the most developed ranch had crossed Dorper onto Maasai sheep whereas the least developed and most arid ranch had introduced Somali Blackhead sheep. The Dorper crossbred catered for a market for mutton whereas the Blackhead was primarily for home consumption of fat.The conclusion is that Group Ranch Development has not projected the Maasai into commercial beef ranching as originally planned, but their production system has not stood still. A study of herd structures was a good way of demonstrating the evolution of the system. The method was simple but was dependent for its success on fairly involved and time-consuming sampling and data collection procedures.     

Managing natural resources of watersheds in the semi-arid tropics for improved soil and water quality: A review

Soil, water and production systems constitute the most important natural resources of a watershed in the rainfed agro-ecosystem; and for sustainability of the production systems they need to be in harmony with the environment. To learn from the past research, a review is made of literature on the impact of natural resource management practices on soil and water quality in the semi-arid tropical regions of India. The results from long-term on station field experiments show that an integrated use of soil and water conservation practices with balanced plant nutrition can not only sustain increased productivity but also maintain soil quality at the watershed or catchment level. Natural resource management practices that conserve soil and water also help to maintain surface and groundwater quality. The changes in soil and water quality, as impacted by natural resource management practices, need to be monitored and assessed on a continuing basis as the outcome of such research offers valuable opportunity for the implementation of corrective management practices, as and when needed.     

A participatory, farming systems approach to improving Bali cattle production in the smallholder crop-livestock systems of Eastern Indonesia

Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) account for about one quarter of the total cattle population in Indonesia and are particularly important in the smallholder farming enterprises of the eastern islands. The population of Bali cattle is declining in most areas of Eastern Indonesia because demand for beef cattle exceeds the local capacity to supply these animals. Indonesian agencies recognise that new strategies are required to improve the productivity of Bali cattle and to address major constraints relating to animal husbandry and nutrition. To date, the adoption of cattle improvement technologies has been historically slow in Indonesia, as is the case elsewhere.This paper reports on key findings from a long-term study conducted between 2001 and 2009 with smallholder households from six villages in South Sulawesi and Central Lombok, to develop and test an approach for evaluating and increasing the adoption of cattle and forage improvement technologies. The approach is based on the principles of farming systems and participatory research and involved four main steps; (1) benchmarking the current farming system; (2) identifying constraints to cattle production and strategies to address them; (3) desktop modelling of the production and economic impacts of selected strategies; and (4) on-farm testing of the most promising strategies with 30 participant smallholder households.The approach was found to be successful based on: (1) sustained adoption of a package of best-bet technologies by the 30 participating households; (2) evidence of positive production, social and economic impacts; and (3) significant diffusion of the cattle improvement technologies to other households in the project regions.     

Relating long-term rainfall variability to cattle population dynamics in communal rangelands and a government ranch in southern Ethiopia

This study reconstructed 21 years of household cattle population data in key resource (tula wells) and non-key resource (pond-water) rangelands in southern Ethiopia, as well as 15 years of government cattle breed conservation ranch data, to analyze the relationship between long-term rainfall and cattle population dynamics. For the key-and-non-key resource rangelands, we assessed the reproductive life of cows and the number of calves. For both the communal and ranch systems, we analyzed impacts of multiple droughts on calving rates and herd die-offs. Relationships between pre-drought and post-drought cattle populations were used to evaluate evidence of density-dependence. Breeding females in the key resource tula well rangelands had a longer reproductive life than in the pond-water rangelands, and they produced more calves per reproductive life. Average calving rates were 55% for the communal and 52% for the ranch. Greater reductions in calving rates during droughts implied reduced herd growth potential. Breeding females and immature animals were influenced to a much greater degree by inter-annual rainfall variability than were mature males. The data showed a downward spiral for the total cattle holdings over a 21-year period, with a decline of 54%. The evidence of density-dependence was relatively important at the local land use level as compared with the regional level. Cattle population below carrying capacity under ranch management did not reduce herd die-offs, suggesting that rainfall variability, not density, had greater influence on cattle population dynamics. Long-term trends of cattle populations in the communal and ranch systems synchronized with mean deviations of rainfall. Our results indicate that rainfall variability under the different management systems strongly influenced the dynamics of cattle population, calving rates and mortality. The claim that ranching could be a superior model for range management in Borana over the communal system was not confirmed. The decline in cattle population in southern Ethiopia indicates a need for improved drought management policy. The evidence that droughts were more harmful to breeding females and immature animals than to mature males suggested that drought management needs to focus on herd recruitment potential. For the herders in southern Ethiopia, drought management involved herd mobility and accumulation of herds during periods of favourable rainfall. In the future, the importance of government ranch could be in breed conservation for the maintenance of the Borana cattle breed through distribution of bulls during the drought recovery phase.     

Sustaining rice–wheat system productivity in the Indo-Gangetic plains: water management-related issues

The Indo-Gangetic plains constitute the most important agricultural region in south Asia. From early 1960s to late 1980s, the area under rice–wheat cropping systems in the Indian portion of the plains has grown rapidly and the crop yields have increased resulting in large production gains. The gains were particularly significant in the north-western region covered by the states of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh although, of late, growth rates have slowed. In comparison productivity levels and growth rates in the eastern region represented by eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal have remained low. Water management-related issues pose a major concern to the sustainability of production systems across the region. In the eastern region flooding is widespread, groundwater resources have not been adequately developed and water availability to crops from surface irrigation systems is unreliable and poorly distributed. Over exploitation of groundwater resources and quality degradation are major concerns in sustaining high productivity in the north-western region. Suggestions are made on areas which call for enhanced research efforts.     

Economics,adoption determinants,and impacts of micro-irrigation technologies: empirical results from India

Micro-irrigation technologies are promoted for various reasons in India. Despite the reported significant economic advantages, and the concerted support of the government and NGOs, the current micro-irrigation area in India remains an insignificant proportion of its potential. This paper analyzes: (1) the economics of alternative micro-irrigation technologies, (2) the determinants of adoption, (3) the poverty outreach of the different micro-irrigation systems, and (4) the sustainability implications of micro-irrigation adoption. In line with the findings of other studies, this study indicates that micro-irrigation technologies result in a significant productivity and economic gains. The most important determinants of micro-irrigation adoption include access to groundwater, cropping pattern, availability of cash, and level of education, the social status and poverty status of the farmer. Contrary to the expectations, the majority of the current adopters of low-cost micro-irrigation systems are the better-off farmers. The study indicates that the impact of micro-irrigation systems on the sustainability of groundwater resources depends upon the magnitude of the overall productivity gain following the shift from traditional irrigation method to micro-irrigation system, the pattern of use of the saved water, and the type and potential number of adopters. This study was supported by the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture (CA) and IWMI-TATA Water Policy Program.

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