Cereal yield and quality as affected by nitrogen availability in organic and conventional arable crop rotations: A combined modeling and experimental approach

The effects of nitrogen (N) availability related to fertilizer type, catch crop management, and rotation composition on cereal yield and grain N were investigated in four organic and one conventional cropping systems in Denmark using the FASSET model. The four-year rotation studied was: spring barley–(faba bean or grass-clover)–potato–winter wheat. Experiments were done at three locations representative of the different soil types and climatic conditions in Denmark. The three organic systems that included faba bean as the N fixing crop comprised a system with manure (stored pig slurry) and undersowing catch crops (OF + C + M), a system with manure but without undersowing catch crops (OF ? C + M), and a system without manure and with catch crops (OF + C ? M). A grass-clover green manure was used as N fixing crop in the other organic system with catch crops (OG + C + M). Cuttings of grass-clover were removed from the plots and an equivalent amount of total-N in pig slurry was applied to the cropping system. The conventional rotation included mineral fertilizer and catch crops (CF + C + F), although only non-legume catch crops were used. Measurements of cereal dry matter (DM) at harvest and of grain N contents were done in all plots. On average the FASSET model was able to predict the yield and grain N of cereals with a reasonable accuracy for the range of cropping systems and soil types studied, having a particularly good performance on winter wheat. Cereal yields were better on the more loamy soil. DM yield and grain N content were mainly influenced by the type and amount of fertilizer-N at all three locations. Although a catch crop benefit in terms of yield and grain N was observed in most of the cases, a limited N availability affected the cereal production in the four organic systems. Scenario analyses conducted with the FASSET model indicated the possibility of increasing N fertilization without significantly affecting N leaching if there is an adequate catch crop management. This would also improve yields of cereal production of organic farming in Denmark.     

Productivity of organic and conventional arable cropping systems in long-term experiments in Denmark

A field experiment comparing different arable crop rotations was conducted in Denmark during 1997–2008 on three sites varying in climatic conditions and soil types, i.e. coarse sand (Jyndevand), loamy sand (Foulum), and sandy loam (Flakkebjerg). The crop rotations followed organic farm management, and from 2005 also conventional management was included for comparison. Three experimental factors were included in the experiment in a factorial design: 1) crop rotation (organic crop rotations varying in use of whole-year green manure (O1 and O2 with a whole-year green manure, and O4 without), and a conventional system without green manure (C4)), 2) catch crop (with and without), and 3) manure (with and without). The experiment consisted of three consecutive cycles using four-course rotations with all crops present every year, i.e. 1997–2000 (1st cycle), 2001–2004 (2nd cycle), and 2005–2008 (3rd cycle). In the 3rd cycle at all locations C4 was compared with two organic rotations, i.e. O2 and O4. The O2 rotation in the third cycle included spring barley, grass-clover, potato, and winter wheat, whereas C4 and O4 included spring barley, faba bean, potato, and winter wheat. For the O2 rotation with green manure there was a tendency for increased DM yield over time at all sites, whereas little response was seen in N yield. In the O4 rotation DM and N yields tended to increase at Foulum over time, but there was little change at Flakkebjerg. The DM yield gap between organic and conventional systems in the 3rd cycle varied between sites with 34–66% at Jyndevad, 21–44% at Foulum, and 32–52% at Flakkebjerg. The inclusion of grass-clover resulted in lower cumulated yield over the rotation than the treatment without grass-clover. The use of manure reduced the DM yield gap between conventional and organic systems on an average by 15 and 21%-points in systems with and without grass-clover, respectively, and the use of catch crops reduced the yield gap by 3 and 5%-points in the respective systems. Across all crops the agronomic efficiency of N in manure (yield benefit for each kg of mineral N applied) was greater in O4 compared with O2 for all crops.     

Winter cereal yields as affected by animal manure and green manure in organic arable farming

The effect of nitrogen (N) supply through animal and green manures on grain yield of winter wheat and winter rye was investigated from 1997 to 2004 in an organic farming crop rotation experiment in Denmark on three different soil types varying from coarse sand to sandy loam. Two experimental factors were included in the experiment in a factorial design: (1) catch crop (with and without), and (2) manure (with and without). The four-course crop rotation was spring barley undersown with grass/clover – grass/clover – winter wheat or wheat rye – pulse crop. All cuttings of the grass–clover were left on the soil as mulch. Animal manure was applied as slurry to the cereal crops in the rotation in rates corresponding to 40% of the N demand of the cereal crops.Application of 50 kg NH₄–N ha^?1 in manure increased average wheat grain yield by 0.4–0.9 Mg DM ha^?1, whereas the use of catch crops did not significantly affect yield. The use of catch crops interacts with other management factors, including row spacing and weed control, and this may have contributed to the negligible effects of catch crops. There was considerable variation in the amount of N (100–600 kg N ha^?1 year^?1) accumulated in the mulched grass–clover cuttings prior to ploughing and sowing of the winter wheat. This was reflected in grain yield and grain N uptake. Manure application to the cereals in the rotation reduced N accumulation in grass–clover at two of the locations, and this was estimated to have reduced grain yields by 0.1–0.2 Mg DM ha^?1 depending on site. Model estimations showed that the average yield reduction from weeds varied from 0.1 to 0.2 Mg DM ha^?1. The weed infestation was larger in the manure treatments, and this was estimated to have reduced the yield benefit of manure application by up to 0.1 Mg DM ha^?1. Adjusting for these model-estimated side-effects resulted in wheat grain yields gains from manure application of 0.7–1.1 Mg DM ha^?1.The apparent recovery efficiency of N in grains (N use efficiency, NUE) from NH₄–N in applied manure varied from 23% to 44%. The NUE in the winter cereals of N accumulated in grass–clover cuttings varied from 14% to 39% with the lowest value on the coarse sandy soil, most likely due to high rates of N leaching at this location. Both NUE and grain yield benefit in the winter cereals declined with increasing amounts of N accumulated in the grass–clover cuttings. The model-estimated benefit of increasing N input in grass–clover from 100 to 500 kg N ha^?1 varied from 0.8 to 2.0 Mg DM ha^?1 between locations. This is a considerably smaller yield increase than obtained for manure application, and it suggests that the productivity in this system may be improved by removing the cuttings and applying the material to the cereals in the rotation, possibly after digestion in a biogas reactor.Cereal grain protein content was increased more by the N in the grass–clover than from manure application, probably due to different timing of N availability. Green-manure crops or manures with a relatively wide C:N ratio may therefore be critical for ensuring sufficiently high protein contents in high yielding winter wheat for bread making.     

Management practices of antecedent leguminous and non-leguminous crop residues in relation to winter wheat yields, nitrogen uptake, soil nitrogen mineralization and simple nitrogen balance

Many studies have been conducted in examining the effects of N fertilizers on cereal yields and nitrogen (N) uptake, the effects of different kind of crop residues and their management practices on cereal yield, nitrogen uptake and simple N balance have not been studied extensively. We studied the effects of antecedent leguminous (white clover and field pea) and non-leguminous (perennial ryegrass and winter wheat) crop residues, each subjected to four different residue management practices (ploughed, rotary hoed, mulched and burned) on grain yield, nitrogen uptake by succeeding winter wheat crops, soil N mineralization and simple N balance. Grain yield and N uptake by the first wheat crop were significantly higher under leguminous than non-leguminous residues, following the order of white clover>pea>ryegrass>wheat. Grain yield under the mulched treatment was significantly lower than those of other management treatments due to lower plant population established. While N uptake was significantly lower under rotary hoed and mulched treatments as compared to other treatments, mulching had a positive residual effect on the grain yield of second wheat crop. Similar to grain yield, total soil N mineralization was greater under leguminous residues during the growing period of first wheat crop and was significantly correlated with C/N ratio of the residues. The calculated simple N balance showed that positive N balances occurred under white clover after one wheat crop when N inputs from only crop residue tops was considered. This also occurred even after two wheat crops when total N inputs from crop residues (tops+roots) were considered. However, with pea, the positive N balance occurred only after the first wheat crop when total N input from crop residues (tops+roots) were considered. These calculations demonstrated the important contribution of root-N to the N economy of the cropping system, which was largely ignored in most studies. The burning of residues showed no significant advantage over other residue management treatments. This was also evident from N balance calculations, which showed, in general, N balance was lower or more negative under residue-burned treatment as compared with other treatments. Overall, present results showed that it is beneficial to retain crop residues in the field, even though non-leguminous residues may cause substantial soil N immobilization initially reducing N availability to the first wheat crop, this N eventually became available to subsequent wheat crops and also increase the fertility of soils in the long-term. Thus, N inputs from crop residues are far more beneficial to the cropping system as compared to the burning of crop residues in the field or their removal from the field.     

Ertragsbildung von getreidereichen Fruchtfolgen und Getreide-monokulturen in einem extensiven und intensiven Anbausystem

Yield formation in cereal-rich crop rotations and monocultures in an extensive and intensive crop-management system
In a long duration trial, conducted from 1979/80 to 1992 at TU-Munich's research station in Roggenstein, the performance of monocultures of winter wheat, winter barley and winter rye, as well as numerous cereal-crop rotations were compared in an extensive and intensive crop-management system. The results obtained can be summarized as follows.
Over the course of 13 years, the influence of the immediately preceding crop on the yield of the main crops was of much greater significance than the rotation as a whole. With winter wheat, no yield differences could be observed between monoculture and cereal crop rotation (if the rotation did not include oats). Oats, rape, field bean, pea, potato and maize as preceding crops, however, in crop management systems, led to, on average, an increase in yield of 13 dt/ha from the following wheat. Winter barley yields were not significantly different in monoculture, cereal crop rotations and crop rotations containing 66% cereals. Furthermore, winter rye yields were the same in monocultures and cereal crop rotations. With all cereals, intensification of fertilizing and chemical plant protection led to a considerable increase in yield, but did not diminish the effects of the preceding crop. Hence, even with the use of modern agronomical techniques it is impossible to compensate for yield losses due to crop rotation.     

Can mineral and organic fertilization help sequestrate carbon dioxide in cropland?

The soil organic matter content represents a huge reservoir of plant nutrients and an effective safeguard against pollution; beside it can sequestrate atmospheric CO₂. Since 1966 up to now in the Southeast Po valley (Italy), the soil organic C (SOC) and total N (TN) dynamics in the 0–0.40 m soil layer under a maize–wheat rainfed rotation are studied as influenced by organic and mineral N fertilizations. Every year in the same plots cattle manure, cattle slurry, and crop residues (i.e. wheat straw and maize stalk) are ploughed under to 0.40 m depth at a same dry matter rate (6.0 and 7.5 t DM ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ after wheat and maize, respectively) and are compared to an unamended control. Each plot is splitted to receive four rates of mineral fertilizer (0–100–200–300 kg N ha⁻¹). In the whole experiment, in 2000 SOC concentration was lower than in 1966 (6.77 and 7.72 g kg⁻¹, respectively), likely for the deeper tillage that diluted SOC and favoured mineralization in deeper soil layer. From 1972 to 2000 SOC stock did not change in the control and N fertilized plots, while it increased at mean rates of 0.16, 0.18, and 0.26 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ with the incorporation of residues, slurry and manure, corresponding to sequestration efficiencies of 3.7, 3.8 and 8.1% of added C with the various materials. TN followed the same SOC dynamic, demonstrating how it depends on the soil organic matter. Manure thus confirmed its efficacy in increasing both SOC content and soil fertility on the long-term. In developed countries, however, this material has become scarcely available; slurry management is expensive and implies high environmental risks. Moreover, in a C balance at a farm (or regional) scale, the CO₂ lost during manure and slurry stocking should be considered. For these reasons, the incorporation of cereal residues, even if only a little of their C content was found capable of soil accumulation, appears the best way to obtain a significant CO₂ sequestration in developed countries. Our long-term experiment clearly shows how difficult it is to modify SOC content. Moreover, because climate and soil type can greatly influence SOC dynamic, to increase CO₂ sequestration in cropland, it is important to optimize the fertilization within an agricultural management that includes all the agronomic practices (e.g. tillage, water management, cover crops, etc.) favouring the organic matter build up in the soil.     

Six-year transition from conventional to organic farming: effects on crop production and soil quality

Organic farming has become increasingly important in recent decades as the consumer has grown its focus on the food and environmental benefits of the technique. However, when compared to conventional farming systems, organic farm system are known to yield less.Presented in this paper are the results from two organic cropping systems following six years of organic management. Fertilisation management differentiated the two systems; one was fertilised with green manure and commercial organic fertilisers, while the other was fertilised with dairy manure. A conventional cropping system, managed with mineral fertiliser as typical in the southern Piemonte region (Italy), served as the bussiness as usual crop management. The first hypothesis tested related to crop yield variation during the initial phase of organic management; we expected a sharp reduction in the early phase, then minor reductions later on. The second hypothesis tested related to soil fertility variation; we expected enhanced soil fertility under organic management.Overall, the organic system produced less, relative to the conventional system in interaction with year effect. Yield reduction seemed related to the lower soil nutrient availability of organic fertilisers that provided nutrients consequent to mineralisation. Therefore, summer crops are well-suited to manure-fertilised organic farms as mineralisation happens at higher temperatures, as opposed to winter wheat, which is largely reduced in such systems. Commercial organic fertilisers can, however, limit this effect through their high nutrient availability in the winter and early springAlso shown was that soil quality, defined as a general decrease in soil organic carbon (SOC) over time in the three analysed arable systems, can be mitigated by manure additions. Green manuring can maintain SOC and increase total N in soil, only if introduced for a sufficient number of years during crop rotation. Finally, soil fertility and Potential Mineralisable N in the different systems demonstrated that organic systems managed with commercial organic nitrogen fertilisers and green manure do not improve soil quality, compared to systems managed with mineral fertilisers.     

Potential Yields and On-Farm Ethanol Production Cost of Corn, Sweet Sorghum, Fodderbeet, and Sugarbeet

Field experiments were conducted during 1980-82 at the Agronomy Farm of the University of California, Davis, to compare fermentable carbohydrate production and cost of potential ethanol from fodderbeet, sweet sorghum, sugarbeet, and corn in relation to the requirements of these crops for fertilizer nitrogen and irrigation. The response of hexose yields of these crops to fertilizer N varied in the two experiments. When all crops responded, sweet sorghum and sugarbeet required 36 % and fodderbeet 68 % of the fertilizer N needed for corn. Twelve weeks following a mid-season irrigation cut off, hexose yield of sugarbeet was decreased by 18 % as compared to an adequately watered crop. Water stressed sweet sorghum extracted higher amounts of soil moisture, increased in hexose concentration and produced 29 % higher hexose yield than when adequately watered. Stressed sugarbeet, however, had a higher hexose yield due to its higher sugar concentration.
When fertilized and irrigated adequately, fodderbeet produced 13.4, sugarbeet 11.9, sweet sorghum 10.0, and corn 8.15 Mg hexose ha⁻¹. Comparative on-farm ethanol production costs of these four crops were very close ($0.38 to 0.40 L⁻¹). Thus, growing established crops like corn and sugarbeet for which processing facilities and alternative markets already exist would be preferred.     

Soil organic matter dynamics and losses in manured maize-based forage systems

Soil organic matter (SOM) produces positive effects on multiple soil properties. Increasing its level also provides an opportunity to reduce atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂). Recycling animal manure and returning crop residue are among the main practices to enhance organic carbon (C) stock in arable croplands. This study analysed data of soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks from a medium-term field trial (established in 1992) through a Hénin–Dupuis-based equation to determine the proportion of different organic materials retained in the soil as SOM.The treatments included in the experiment simulated different typical management techniques and implied the application to the soil of various organic materials, i.e. cattle slurry, cattle farmyard manure, maize straw, root, maize and ley stubble. Soil organic carbon and total nitrogen (N) (Kjeldhal N) were measured in the 0–30 cm layer during spring 1999 and spring 2003. The relationship between SOC and N stocks measured in 1999 and 2003 and the annual additions of C and N was described by the Hénin–Dupuis-based equation, assuming the presence of two C and N pools (stable and fresh).Our results showed that the application of farmyard manure, slurry and maize straw induced higher C and N content compared to the application of urea without return of crop residue. The different levels of urea application did not produce any significant difference in C and N soil content.We found that approximately 2% of SOC is lost to the atmosphere annually. Furthermore, the amount of C and N retained in the soil each year varied by organic materials: 46% C and 44% N with farmyard manure, 26% C and 11% N with slurry, 28% C and 10% N with root and 6% C with maize straw and ley stubble.These results were used to inform an estimate of C lost or removed to/from atmosphere following manure application and crop residue return for the compilation of greenhouse gas inventories. We found that the most C conservative management is the production and spreading of farmyard manure and that increasing amounts of mineral N fertilizer did not affect the C sequestration extent.     

Effects of biogas digestion of clover/grass-leys, cover crops and crop residues on nitrogen cycle and crop yield in organic stockless farming systems

The trend towards specialization in conventional farming led to large agricultural areas in Germany and in Europe lacking livestock. Also stockless organic farming has increased during recent years. In organic farming clover/grass-ley (CG) provides nitrogen (N) to the whole cropping system via symbiotic N₂ fixation and also controls certain weeds. A common practice in organic farming, when ruminants are not present, is to leave the biomass from CG in the field for their residual fertility effect. CG biomass, crop residues (CR) and cover crops (CC) represent a large unexploited energy potential. It could be used by anaerobic digestion to produce biogas. A field experiment was carried out by implementing a whole cropping system with a typical crop rotation for such farming systems on the research station Gladbacherhof from 2002 to 2005. The crop rotation consisted of six crops (two legumes and four non-legume crops). The aim was to evaluate whether the use of N could be improved by processing biomass from CG, CR and CC in a biogas digester and using the effluents as a fertilizer, compared to common practice. In the control treatment, represented by the usual stockless system, the CG, CR and CC biomass were left on the ground for green manure purposes. In the biogas systems these substrates were harvested for digestion in a biogas plant. The effluents of digestion were used to manure the non-legumes in the same crop rotation. Results indicate that digestion of CG, CR and CC can increase the crop dry matter and N yields and the N content of wheat grains in organic stockless systems. Harvesting and digestion of residues and their reallocation after digestion resulted in a better and more even allocation of N within the whole crop rotation, in a higher N input via N₂ fixation and lower N losses due to emissions and probably in a higher N availability of digested manures in comparison to the same amounts of undigested biomass.     

Agronomic effects of bovine manure: A review of long-term European field experiments

To evaluate the agronomic value of animal manure, we quantified the effects of pedo-climatic, crop and management factors on crop productivity, N use efficiency, and soil organic matter, described with simple indicators that compare manures with mineral fertilizers. We selected 80 European long-term field experiments that used bovine farmyard manure or bovine liquid slurry, alone (FYM and SLU) or combined with mineral fertilizers (FYMm and SLUm), and compared them to mineral fertilizer only reference treatments. We collected 5570 measurements from 107 papers. FYM produced slightly lower crop yields (−9.5%) when used alone and higher (+11.3%) yields when used in combination with N fertilizer (FYMm), compared to those obtained using mineral fertilizers only. Conditions promoting manure-N mineralization (lighter soil texture, warmer temperature, longer growing season, and shallower incorporation depth) significantly increased the effect of FYM/FYMm on crop yield and yield N. The production efficiency of FYM (yield:N applied ratio) was slightly lower than that of mineral fertilizers (-1.6%). The apparent N recoveries of FYM and FYMm were 59.3% and 78.7%, respectively, of mineral fertilizers. Manured soils had significantly higher C (+32.9% on average for FYM and FYMm) and N (+21.5%) concentrations. Compared to mineral fertilizers, yield was reduced by 9.1% with SLU, but not with SLUm. Influencing factors were similar to those of FYM/FYMm. Efficiency indicators indicated SLU (but not SLUm) was less effective than mineral fertilizers. Slurry significantly increased SOC (on average for SLU and SLUm by +17.4%) and soil N (+15.7%) concentrations. In conclusion, compared to mineral N fertilizers, bovine farmyard manure and slurry were slightly less effective on the crop, but determined marked increases to SOC and soil N, and thus, to long-term soil fertility maintenance.     

Nitrogen partitioning and utilization in corn cropping systems: Rotation,N source,and N timing

Nitrogen partitioning and utilization can partly control plant productivity. This study was conducted to estimate dry matter (DM) and N partitioning parameters in corn (Zea mays L.) as affected by N source, N timing, and crop rotation. We quantified yield by combine, aboveground DM accumulation [residues (stalk + cob) and grain], and C and N concentrations at growth stage R6 of corn continuously cropped (CC) or in rotation with soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] (CS) and fertilized with side-dressed urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN) or with liquid swine manure applied in either spring (SM) or fall (FM). Of the assessed N partitioning parameters, N utilization showed the highest association with yield (r = 0.94***). Across treatment means, 72% of these increases in N utilization could be attributed to increases in N uptake. On the contrary, N harvest index (NHI) exhibited nearly constant values across experimental units, and therefore, NHI showed a minor relative contribution to variations in N utilization, thus supporting the basic premise of low NHI dependency on environment or management. Both N uptake and N utilization were driven by type of N addition (UAN > manure). Also, corn N utilization and yield were greater (10–13%) within the corn–soybean rotation, suggesting that a shift in land use from crop rotations into more continuous corn due to increasing demand for corn grain may impose additional challenges for enhancing plant N nutrition and sustaining yield.     

Multi-model uncertainty analysis in predicting grain N for crop rotations in Europe

Realistic estimation of grain nitrogen (N; N in grain yield) is crucial for assessing N management in crop rotations, but there is little information on the performance of commonly used crop models for simulating grain N. Therefore, the objectives of the study were to (1) test if continuous simulation (multi-year) performs better than single year simulation, (2) assess if calibration improves model performance at different calibration levels, and (3) investigate if a multi-model ensemble can substantially reduce uncertainty in reproducing grain N. For this purpose, 12 models were applied simulating different treatments (catch crops, CO₂ concentrations, irrigation, N application, residues and tillage) in four multi-year rotation experiments in Europe to assess modelling accuracy. Seven grain and seed crops in four rotation systems in Europe were included in the study, namely winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley, spring oat, winter rye, pea and winter oilseed rape. Our results indicate that the higher level of calibration significantly increased the quality of the simulation for grain N. In addition, models performed better in predicting grain N of winter wheat, winter barley and spring barley compared to spring oat, winter rye, pea and winter oilseed rape. For each crop, the use of the ensemble mean significantly reduced the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) between simulations and observations to less than 15%, thus a multi–model ensemble can more precisely predict grain N than a random single model. Models correctly simulated the effects of enhanced N input on grain N of winter wheat and winter barley, whereas effects of tillage and irrigation were less well estimated. However, the use of continuous simulation did not improve the simulations as compared to single year simulation based on the multi-year performance, which suggests needs for further model improvements of crop rotation effects.     

褐潮土长期定位不同施肥制度土壤生产功能演化研究

通过14年长期定位试验研究了褐潮土不同施肥制度对土壤生产功能、产量可持续性指数及农学效率的影响。结果表明，N、P为褐潮土作物高产的主要限制因子，14年产量平均，NPK比CK、N、NK、PK分别增产459%、386%、280%、205%（小麦）和154%、108%、87%、78%（玉米）；NPK+M(NPK配施厩肥)比NPK平均增产12%，NPK+S(NPK加秸秆)与NPK产量相当。NPK及NPK配施有机肥（包括厩肥和秸秆）处理的小麦、玉米产量可持续性指数高于N、P不均衡施用处理。化肥肥效因作物种类、施肥组合而不同，N肥单施时小麦和玉米N的农学效率降低，而NPK配施时N的农学效率有上升趋势，平均分别为16 kg/kg N（小麦）和14 kg/kg N（玉米）；磷肥肥效具有短期的叠加效应，P的农学效率小麦大于玉米，种植10年后P的农学效率最高可达最初的4.5～7倍；K的农学效率在试验进行十年后NK处理平均为负值，同期NPK处理中小麦K的农学效率却急剧增加，K成为作物高产的限制因素；有机肥对小麦和玉米的农学效率分别为21 kg/t和25 kg/t，秸秆对小麦和玉米的农学效率分别为负值和37 kg/t。NPK均衡施肥能提高土壤有机质、全N、全P、速效N、速效P等肥力指标；NPK配施有机肥能加快土壤有机质和N、P、K养分的积累；NPK不均衡施肥导致土壤中此种营养元素的耗竭。     

Crop yields and N losses tradeoffs in a garlic–wheat rotation in southern Spain

The CropSyst model was parameterized and verified for garlic with data from six field experiments carried out in southern Spain from 2008 to 2011. The model simulated well crop dry matter production, N uptake, and yield from field plots with different N fertilization treatments. A garlic–wheat rotation was then simulated for a 30-year period to evaluate the role of wheat after garlic as a catch crop that utilizes and reduces the loss of residual soil N left at the time of garlic harvest. The scenarios studied were the combination of seven rates of mineral N fertilization in garlic (0, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 kgN/ha) and three rates in wheat (30, 70 and 110 kgN/ha). Fertilization rates of 150 kgN/ha in garlic and 70 kgN/ha in wheat were found to provide the best tradeoff between N loss reductions (N leaching and N gas emissions) while attaining near-maximum yields. Increasing fertilization to 200 and 110 kgN/ha for garlic and wheat, respectively, rates not atypical in the region, had a minimum effect on yields but increased average N losses over the rotation by 19 kgN/ha/2-year (29%). Further reductions of N losses by decreasing N fertilization below the best tradeoff point are possible at the expense of crop yield.     

The Effect of Preceding Crop and Pre-Sprouting on Crop Growth, N Use and Tuber Yield of Maincrop Potatoes for Processing Under Conditions of N Stress

Factorial field trials were carried out on an experimental farm near Kassel, Germany, in two consecutive seasons (2003 and 2004) in order to examine the impact of leguminous and cereal preceding crops (i) on soil N availability under subsequent potatoes and (ii) the effect of preceding crop and pre‐sprouting of seed tubers on crop development, N uptake, N utilization efficiency and total and size‐graded tuber yields relevant for processing into either crisps or French fries. In addition, an approach to analyse complex field experiments using mixed models is discussed. Soil mineralized nitrate‐N at emergence of the potato crop was affected by the preceding crop and was highest when potatoes followed peas, while the short‐term alfalfa/grass/clover ley appeared too sensitive to environmental conditions in the preceding cropping season, and its efficiency in terms of N supply may be hard to predict. Pre‐sprouting advanced crop development and dry matter accumulation of the canopy, translocation of assimilates and N from canopy into tubers and allowed an increased N utilization efficiency. The positive effect of pre‐sprouting on total tuber yield was compensated up to the final harvest, but a higher percentage of marketable tuber yield for French fries (>50 mm) was found independently of the date of harvest. An increasing N supply (after peas and a following catch crop) may be efficient in terms of higher yields of the marketable size‐grades (40–65 mm) for crisps, but increase oversized tuber yields in seasons not affected by Phytophthora infestans. Average tuber fresh weight responded consistently and positively to seed‐tuber preparation (pre‐sprouting), cultivar (cv. Agria) and an increased N supply (after peas).     

Analysis of Soil Fertility and Management Effects on Yields of Wheat and Corn in the Rolling Pampa of Argentina

The Rolling Pampa is the most productive region of the Argentine Humid Pampa comprising around 10 Mha. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), corn (Zea mays L.), and soya bean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] are the main grain crops produced. To develop sound cropping strategies, a better understanding of the impact of soil fertility and management on crops is needed. The objective of this study was to develop models for estimating the effects of growing season precipitation, soil fertility and management on wheat and corn yields. Data from 347 wheat and 323 corn field experiments and production fields over six growing seasons were used. Soil, management and weather characteristics were determined and yields were then evaluated. Data were analysed using linear and quadratic models and a quadratic polynomial surface model. Soil fertility, management and rainfall and interactions were analysed. Growing season precipitation correlated with wheat (R² = 0.42) and corn (R² = 0.25) yield. Maximum wheat yield was achieved with 350–400 mm rainfall and corn yield reached a plateau around 700 mm. Soil fertility accounted for 33 % of wheat yield variability and 5 % of corn yield variability. Management accounted for 48 and 9 % respectively. Whole polynomial models integrating rainfall, fertilizer N and P rates, soil N and P, previous crop and tillage system accounted for 67 % of wheat yield variability and 51 % of corn yield variability. Soil organic matter was not included in the models but an indirect effect on yield was detected as organic matter correlated with initial soil N levels for both crops. Soya bean as a previous crop had a positive effect on wheat and corn yields. Wheat was insensitive to tillage system but corn yield was higher under no till. N and P fertilization had a two- to three-fold greater impact on yield than soil nutrient levels. As this region is considered to be of high soil fertility and has a history of very low fertilizer consumption, adequate use of N and P fertilization will be essential to maintaining high wheat and corn yields.     

ROTOR,a tool for generating and evaluating crop rotations for organic farming systems

As with conventional farming, the improvement of organic farming systems requires agronomic planning tools to enhance economic performance. Crop rotation planning plays a crucial role in organic arable farming systems due to the renunciation of mineral nitrogen fertilisers and pesticides. Our objective was to develop a tool for generating and evaluating site-specific and agronomically sustainable crop rotations for organic farming systems in central Europe. The resulting static rule-based model, called ROTOR, consists of two basic steps: (A) A set of annual crop production activities (CPAs) is assembled semi-automatically from single site and crop-specific field operations using a relational data base. The database includes all relevant crops recorded separately with inputs and outputs, machinery and timing. Starting from stubble tillage and ending with the last harvest measure, the CPAs describe the current best cropping practices. Different CPAs are included for each crop according to (i) the type of crop preceding and (ii) the field operations following: whether ploughing or non-inverting tillage, undersowing crops, using catch crops, manuring, straw harvesting, or mechanical weed control. The former allows for the modelling of all possible positions of a crop within a crop rotation and the consequential effects of preceding crops. The CPAs are evaluated using rule-based assessment modules for yield, economic performance, N balance, nitrate leaching, and weed infestation risks. These modules have been developed using data from field experiments, farm trials and surveys, expert knowledge and a soil–crop simulation model. (B) Within the crop generation module, all possible sequences of CPAs are linked to 3–8-year preliminary crop rotations. Agronomically sustainable crop rotations are selected according to exclusion criteria (i.e., thresholds for N balance, weed infestation risks, phytosanitary and chronological restrictions) and ranked, e.g. by economic performance. The model was tested by comparing (i) estimated with observed yields and (ii) generated with existing rotations. These comparisons, based on data obtained from two farm surveys from North Eastern Germany, indicate the validity and usability of the model approach. ROTOR was found to support the complex crop rotation planning in organic farming systems requiring rotations with overlapping undersown main and cover crops. ROTOR is able to reduce the risk of planning failures by offering a quantitative method of optimisation of weed and site-specific N management.     

Straw management, crop rotation, and nitrogen source effect on wheat grain yield and nitrogen use efficiency

Nitrogen fertilizer management from different sources and annual crop rotations are important components of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production systems, especially where air and soil quality issues have prompted a search for alternatives to wheat straw burning. This study examined the effects of two different wheat straw management options (burning and incorporation by tillage), three crop rotations [wheat-sesbania (Sesbania spp.), wheat–maize (Zea mays L.), and wheat-clean fallow] and three N sources (urea, chicken manure, and urea plus chicken manure) on wheat grain yield and N use efficiency. The experiment was conducted as split–split plot treatment arrangement with three replications for eight wheat cropping seasons in the state of Sonora, Mexico. Results indicated that both wheat grain yield and N use efficiency were higher with burning than incorporation of wheat straw and with fertilization with urea or urea plus chicken manure than chicken manure alone. As shown by the crop rotation-by-straw management interaction, planting sesbania following incorporation of the straw by tillage produced comparable grain yields to straw burning treatment. In contrast, wheat in annual rotation with maize produced the lowest wheat grain yield and N use efficiency irrespective of the wheat straw management and N source applied.     

Standorterhebungen zur Stickstoffdynamik nach Anbau von Körnerleguminosen

Field studies on nitrogen dynamics after cultivation of grain legumes Field trials were conducted in order to study the nitrogen dynamics in soil after cultivation of grain legumes and to investigate the possibility of reduction of nitrate leaching due to catch crops or suitable following crops. Accordingly, in 1989/90 soil samples were taken on 12 farms at depths of 0–80 cm in 4 week intervals and analysed for NO₃-N. Furthermore, Brassica napus and Sinapis alba were sown after grain legumes on two farms, and at the experimental station Roggenstein field trials were carried out with different catch crops (Sinapis alba, Raphanus sativus, Lolium multiflorum and Pisum sativum) after grain peas. Considerable amounts of nitrogen (100–150 kg N/ha) in the form of crop residues (straw and grains) were left on the fields cultivated with grain legumes. After harvesting, nitrate content in the soil layer 0–80 cm was on grain legume fields almost twice as high as on fields cultivated with winter wheat. During autumn, the soil nitrate contents increased remarkably. In the soil layer 0–80 cm the maximum values rose to 140 kg N/ha after peas, to 120 kg N/ha after faba beans and only to 65 kg N/ha after winter wheat. The more intensive N-mineralization after peas compared to faba beans is due to a lower C/N-ratio of crop residues and an earlier harvest time of 2-3 weeks of peas. In winter extremely high N-leaching was measured on fallow land after cultivation of grain legumes. Cultivation of catch crops makes it possible to retain up to 110 kg N/ha in plant material. Raphanus sativus and Sinapis alba are most suitable for this purpose due to their high N-uptake even when they are sown late. Ploughing up catch crops in autumn results in a fast mineralization of their immobilized nitrogen. This implies the risk of N-leaching into deeper soil layers during winter, depending on the amount of rainfall and water capacity of the soil. Particularly on soils with low water capacity, early N-mineralization needs to be prevented by cultivating catch crops which freeze off or survive in winter. Cultivation of Brassica napus (winter form) after grain legumes leads to an extensive uptake of soil nitrate before the beginning of the seepage period, and therefore almost excludes enhanced N-leaching.