Soil and water conservation projects and rural livelihoods: options for design and research to enhance adoption and adaptation

This paper synthesizes the findings of a workshop which sought to consider the issues of poor uptake, adoption and adaptation of soil and water conservation techniques by farmers post‐project by examining the experiences of projects which had research and extension elements. Critical factors contributing to the adoption and adaptation of soil and water conservation techniques by farmers are identified as

• a more flexible approach and which enables learning within projects;
• a process rather than output driven approach to soil and water conservation;
• demonstration of immediate and tangible benefits of soil and water conservation to farmers (production, income, risk‐minimization); and
• avoiding a narrow focus on soil and water conservation—alternatives are ‘better land husbandry’ or ‘sustainable rural livelihoods’ approaches.

A number of areas are identified as priorities for further research which would aid the successful adoption of sustainable agricultural techniques and which should guide future research, development and extension, bringing more sustained benefits to farmers, particularly in humid and subhumid hillside regions. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Conservation tillage systems and their adoption in the United States

Conservation benefits of conservation tillage had been developed long before the production disadvantages were removed. Even though, in some cases, there are still production disadvantages and lower yields, compared to conventional tillage, conservation tillage is attractive to farmers primarily because of the potential for reduced production costs; conservation benefits are of secondary interest in most cases even though they accrue from the use of conservation tillage. This farmer interest in cost reduction will most certainly guide research inputs. Surveys of farmers have shown that more emphasis must be placed on all of the technology needed for a production system. In order to avoid financially-disastrous consequences, associated risk assessments are even required during the adoption period, i.e., the period when conservation tillage is replacing the conventional tillage.When a conservation-tillage-planting system is defined rigorously, based on the requirement that at least 30% of the surface should be covered with crop residue, the adoption averages about 25% of the cropland in the United States. Nine tillage management regions (TMR) in the United States were delineated based on climate, adapted crops and cropping systems. Adoption of conservation-tillage-planting systems ranged widely from 22 to 45% of the cropland in a TMR. Full-width systems such as mulch till, in which the whole field is tilled, were used much more than partial-width systems such as no-till, ridge till and strip till in which only strips are tilled. Adoption of these forms of conservation tillage are sensitive to the dominant-cropping systems in a TMR. Variations in adoption were often well related to the problems and benefits discussed by research on tillage-planting systems in the TMR.     

The potential contribution of ecotourism to African wild dog Lycaon pictus conservation in South Africa

African wild dogs are endangered, and in South Africa as elsewhere, they inhabit a fraction of their former range. In this study, we assessed the potential for economic benefits derived from ecotourism to offset the costs of three wild dog conservation options using a contingent valuation study of the willingness of visitors to four protected areas to pay to see wild dogs at the den - within a viable population in a large protected area (Kruger National Park), through reintroduction into nature reserves, and through the conservation of wild dogs occurring on ranchland in situ. Results indicated that tourism revenue from wild dogs in large protected areas is more than sufficient to offset the costs and could potentially be used to subsidise wild dog reintroductions or the conservation of wild dogs in situ on ranchland. On ranchland and for reintroductions, tourism revenue was generally predicted to offset most of the costs of conserving wild dogs where predation costs are low, and to exceed the costs where willingness to pay is high, and/or where the costs of predation by wild dogs are zero. Conservation efforts should facilitate the derivation of eco-tourism-related benefits from wild dogs on ranchland and in private reserves to create incentives for wild dog conservation. Ecotourism should be part of a multifaceted approach to wild dog conservation which also includes education and awareness campaigns, and efforts to encourage landowners to cooperate to form conservancies.     

Participatory soil and water conservation planning using a financial analysis tool in the West Usambara highlands of Tanzania

Despite decades of soil and water conservation (SWC) efforts in Tanzania, the adoption of the recommended SWC measures by farmers is minimal. In the past, SWC plans did not incorporate farmers' knowledge, and the economics of SWC was not given much attention at the planning stage. This research evaluated the applicability of two tools for participatory soil erosion mapping using farmers' indicators of soil erosion and financial analysis of SWC measures at the planning stage. The two tools were evaluated in Kwalei catchment in the West Usambara highlands, Tanzania. The participatory soil erosion‐mapping tool uses farmers' indicators of soil erosion to identify, classify and map soil erosion at the catchment level. The financial analysis tool involves farmers in a stepwise analysis of the costs and benefits of SWC measures before the implementation. The erosion‐mapping tool increased farmers' awareness on the severity of soil erosion problems, and they realised the need for SWC plans at both field and catchment scales. With the financial analysis tool farmers participated in the cost and benefits analysis and were able to select SWC options that were feasible under their socio‐economic situation. The two tools were able to demonstrate that farmers' participation in SWC planning increases the acceptance of SWC measures because they solve problems that are perceived by themselves. The financial analysis tool demonstrated how farmers could make selection of SWC measures that are feasible under their biophysical and economic condition if they are informed about the costs and benefits. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Opportunity costs: Who really pays for conservation?

Designing conservation areas entails costs that, if considered explicitly, can be minimized while still achieving conservation targets. Here we focus on opportunity costs which measure forgone benefits from alternative land uses. Conservation planning studies often use partial estimates of costs, but the extent to which these result in actual efficiencies has not been demonstrated. Our study partitions land costs into three distinct opportunity costs to smallholder agriculture, soybean agriculture and ranching. We demonstrate that opportunity costs to single stakeholder groups can be inaccurate measures of true opportunity costs and can inadvertently shift conservation costs to affect groups of stakeholders disproportionately. Additionally, we examine how spatial correlations between costs as well as target size affect the performance of opportunity costs to single stakeholder groups as surrogate measures of true opportunity costs. We conclude that planning with opportunity costs to single stakeholder groups can result in cost burdens to other groups that could undermine the long-term success of conservation. Thus, an understanding of the spatial distributions of opportunity costs that are disaggregated to groups of stakeholders is necessary to make informed decisions about priority conservation areas.     

Subsidized agricultural resettlements as drivers of tropical deforestation

Agricultural encroachment into low-governance forest frontiers including vast tracts of hitherto unclaimed public lands and indigenous territories represents one of the most abrupt land-use transitions in tropical countries. This often results from spontaneous migration from more heavily-settled regions or direct subsidies from land redistribution programs prescribed by central-government policy. Here, we briefly review the spatial scale and environmental consequences of agrarian resettlement schemes in tropical forest countries, and explore the policy contradictions of competing government agencies in shaping conflicting rationales for either conservation or rural development. We focus on the largest tropical forest region on Earth, the Brazilian Amazon, which continues to attract one of the largest waves of land-tenured and landless migrant farmers from elsewhere in Brazil. We argue that the environmental and monetary costs associated with these resettlement schemes are rarely outweighed by the socioeconomic benefits accrued to translocated farmers. Land-use planning in lowland tropical forest regions like Amazonia would benefit from a truly integrated policy framework that bridges the divide between conflicting government sectors, particularly in relation to smallholder occupation of previously intact forest areas, which increasingly contributes with a significant fraction of deforestation in many regions.     

我国著名旱地农业和水土保持专家山仑研究员

通过分析黄河峡保区和渭北台塬对红刺，花椒和苹果的产业开发认为，水土保持措施配置必须因地制宜和突出经济效益，寓水土保持效益于经济效益之中，才能使农民尽快脱贫致富，加快对对水土流失的治理速度。     

江苏省丘陵山区及平原沙土区水土流失综合治理及效益评估研究

通过近期重点工程规划实例分析江苏省水土流失综合治理措施及其效益,以期为今后的水保规划和综合治理提供借鉴。通过分析江苏省水土流失现状及特点,建立丘陵山区以小流域为单元的山、水、田、林、路综合治理措施体系,平原沙土区以小区域为单元的河、沟、堤、田、林、路综合治理措施体系,并规划各分区重点工程措施分布及工程量;在此基础上,进一步构建水土保持效益评价的指标体系及相应计算模型,进行规划措施的生态、经济、社会效益测算与分析。结果表明,全部措施生效当年可减蚀土壤1.38×106 t,拦蓄水1.27×108 m3;规划实施期末累计经济效益总额5 059.05万元,农民人均增收552.18元,效益显著。     

Cost‐benefit analysis of bench terraces,a case study in Peru

Soil and water conservation measures like bench terraces can reduce erosion in highland crop production. A cost‐benefit analysis for 11 cases of bench terraces was undertaken on the basis of both measured data and data obtained from farmers. It showed that the profitability of bench terraces was lower than believed by farmers. Whether terracing was financially attractive to a farmer, depended on his personal opportunity cost of labour. For most farmers an opportunity cost of labour below the market wage could be justified, as they had only temporarily off‐farm work. Considering these opportunity costs, the labour input in bench terracing was in most cases worthwhile. The costs and benefits of bench terraces were both much higher than the value of external project incentives. The incentives barely influenced the profitability of the bench terraces. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Economic concepts for designing policies to conserve crop genetic resources on farms

The future food supply of all societies depends on the exploitation of genetic recombination and allelic diversity for crop improvement, and many of the world's farmers depend directly on the harvests of the genetic diversity they sow for food and fodder as well as the next season's seed. On farm conservation is an important component of the global strategy to conserve crop genetic resources, though the structure of costs and benefits from on farm conservation differ from those associated with ex situ conservation in gene banks. A fundamental problem that affects the design of policies to encourage on farm conservation is that crop genetic diversity is an impure public good, meaning that it has both private and public economic attributes. This concept is defined and made operational in order to assist practitioners in identifying (1) least-cost sites for on farm conservation (2) the types of policy instruments that might be appropriate for supporting conservation once a site has been located. Published findings regarding prospects for on farm conservation as economies develop are summarized and empirical examples of suitable policies to support farmers' decisions are placed in the context of economics principles.     

The “Crex crex” lament: Estimating landowners willingness to pay for corncrake conservation on Irish farmland

This paper considers farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) to conserve an endangered Irish farmland bird, the corncrake (Crex crex). An Irish National Farm Survey is used to produce individual farm-level WTP estimates for the year 2006. These figures are then aggregated to obtain a total value figure for the farming community of corncrake conservation in Ireland. We focus on the willingness to pay of farmers rather than the WTP of the general Irish population, as farmers will ultimately be the ones that will have to take responsibility if targets set out in the All Ireland Action Plan for corncrake conservation are to be achieved. Quantifying willingness to pay on the part of farmers can help inform the design of agri-environment schemes aimed at improving conservation of many bird species on farmland. Results indicate that the non-market benefit of corncrake conservation in Ireland may significantly outweigh the costs of existing conservation schemes.     

The economics of tillage for large-scale mechanized farms

Economically rational farmers base tillage choice decisions on comparisons of resources requirements, production, costs, crop yields and short-term net returns across alternative systems. Also deserving consideration are the adverse effects of tillage on soil erosion and longer term productivity, which in turn affect longer term net returns, and the comparative riskiness of tillage alternatives, as measured by variability of net returns. Most empirical evidence indicates the superiority of conservation tillage systems for both crops and small grains, especially where produced in warm climates, on shallow soils, and on sloping terrain. The same conservation tillage systems tend to carry a higher risk loading, so that risk-averse farmers may prefer more erosive conventional tillage systems, despite the lower profitability.

While farmers may be able to ignore the off-set costs of downstream watercourse pollution caused by soil erosion, society is increasingly concerned about such costs. Unless more farmers adopt conservation tillage systems voluntarily, increased public intervention may be demanded society at large. Such intervention could reduce the farmer's freedom to choice, but could also involve financial assistance programmes, since the latter can be justified on economic grounds.     

Crop production through conservation-effective tillage in the tropics

Agriculture can be intensified and food production increased in the tropics through conservation-effective tillage, with other benefits being soil and water conservation, energy saving and improved timeliness of planting.

The agronomic and economic performance of conservation-effective tillage is extremely location-specific. Problems important in semi-arid regions may not be significant in humid tropical areas. This paper attempts to avoid broad generalizations and to indicate ways of developing the best combination of practices for each local situation. The widespread use of on-farm research and demonstration plots to obtain site-specific information would aid the rapid adaptation and adoption of conservation farming practices in developing countries within different regions. Acceptance of conservation tillage by small farmers in developing countries would be an evolutionary process, and their adoption of improved simple farm equipment and appropriate practices to control weeds should be intesively promoted.

A concerted effort to understand and respond to the needs of farmers, crops and soils will be essential in achieving the goal of increasing agricultural productivity while maintaining oil through conservation-effective tillage in the tropics.     

A Note on Soil Erosion and Its Environmental Consequences in the United States

Soil erosion has both on-farm and off-farm impacts. Reduction ofsoil depth can impair the land's productivity, and the transportof sediments can degrade streams, lakes, and estuaries. Since1933, soil conservation policies have existed in the UnitedStates. Originally they focused on the on-farm benefits ofkeeping soil on the land and increasing net farm income.Beginning in the 1980s, however, policy goals increasinglyincluded reductions in off-site impacts of erosion. As aconsequence of conservation efforts associated with explicitU.S. government policies, total soil erosion between 1982 and1992 was reduced by 32% and the sheet and rill erosion ratefell from an average of 4.1 tons per acre per year in 1982 to 3.1 tons per acre in 1992. Wind erosion rate fell from anaverage of 3.3 tons per acre per year to 2.4 tons per acre peryear over the same period. Still, soil erosion is imposingsubstantial social costs. These costs are estimated to be about$37.6 billion annually. To further reduce soil erosion andthereby mitigate its social costs, there are a number of policyoptions available to induce farmers to adopt conservationpractices including education and technical assistance,financial assistance, research and development, land retirement,and regulation and taxes.     

Effects of double drilling of small grains on soil erosion by concentrated flow and crop yield

Soil erosion on agricultural land and its detrimental environmental and economical effects has aroused increased interest among both the research and policy-making communities. The call for erosion control measures adapted to local farming practices is high, especially in Europe where farmers are reluctant to adopt soil conservation techniques. This study investigates a new technique for controlling concentrated flow erosion rates in the loess belt of central Belgium: i.e. double drilling of cereals in zones of concentrated flow. Cross-sectional areas of erosion channels as well as crop yield parameters in single- and double-drilled zones were compared. The technique is based on the combined effect of the increased density of plant shoots and roots for reducing soil loss. Results indicate that double drilling can reduce soil loss through concentrated flow by 25% on average and by up to 40% under optimal conditions. No net change in wheat grain yield was observed, and farmers who participated in the experiments were satisfied with the results and the easy application of the technique. Globally, benefits were larger than costs. However, the effectiveness of the technique in reducing soil loss by concentrated flow erosion seems to be topographically restricted. For positions in the landscape with a contributing drainage area larger than ca. 0.75 ha, the effectiveness of double drilling can be doubted. Double drilling should therefore be regarded as one possibility amongst others to reduce concentrated flow erosion rates in farmers’ fields.     

MAKING SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION SUSTAINABLE: FROM COERCION AND CONTROL TO PARTNERSHIPS AND PARTICIPATION

For close to a century, rural development policies and practice have taken the view that farmers are mismanagers of soil and water. This paper reviews the history of farmers being advised, paid and forced to adopt new soil and water conservation measures and practices. Many have done so, and environments and economies have benefited in the short term, but ill-conceived policies and badly designed programmes and projects have undermined these efforts in the name of conservation. Most efforts have been remarkably unsuccessful, often resulting in more erosion. They have undermined the credibility of conservation and wasted huge sums of money. For a new era of soil and water conservation, new initiatives are showing how to make conservation sustainable. Farmers are now considered the potential solution rather than the problem, and so the value of local knowledge and skills is being put at the core of new programmes. This involves a major focus on building farmers' capacity to innovate and develop technologies appropriate to their own conditions. Local organizations are strengthened through participatory processes, this participation being interactive and empowering. Recent evidence is indicating that these new interactions between professionals and farmers are producing considerable productive and sustainable benefits. For widespread impact, enabling policy frameworks are still needed to encourage the spread of more sustainable practices for agriculture. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Management costs for small protected areas and economies of scale in habitat conservation

Protected area management must be resourced adequately to achieve its conservation objectives. The variability in management costs across candidate sites for protection therefore should inform conservation planning. For example, when considering whether to accept a donation of a property, a conservation organisation must determine whether an adequate endowment is available to fund future management activities. We examine variation in management costs across 78 small protected areas in the UK that are managed by a conservation NGO, the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust. Management costs exceed acquisition costs when funded on an endowment basis and are not correlated with acquisition costs or with proxy measures for conservation costs commonly relied upon in conservation planning studies. A combination of geographic, ecological and socioeconomic characteristics of sites explains 50% of the variation in management costs. Site area is the most important determinant of management costs, which demonstrate economies of scale; implementing conservation management on an additional hectare adjacent to a larger protected area would incur a lower cost than doing the same adjacent to a smaller site. In evidencing this effect of site area, we avoid problems of spurious correlation that confound previous studies. Protected areas that encompass a greater richness of priority habitats for conservation also require more expensive management. Conservation organisations may have little option but to create small protected areas to conserve biodiversity in highly fragmented landscapes, but the decision to do so should take account of the greater cost burden that small protected areas incur.     

Participatory soil and water conservation planning using an erosion mapping tool in the central highlands of Kenya

Despite several approaches that aimed at mobilising East African farmers to embrace soil and water conservation (SWC) activities, farmers hardly responded since they were seldom involved in the planning of SWC activities. Two tools that employ farmers' participation were developed and applied at Gikuuri catchment in Kenya. The first tool involved farmers to map soil erosion using their own indicators and determine the soil erosion status at catchment scale. This formed the basis upon which they undertook to plan for SWC measures at catchment scale. Farmers also predicted crop yield losses based on the soil erosion status. Farmers widely approved the soil erosion status map since their own indicators and perceptions were used. The second tool provided cash flow trends for a variety of SWC activities and farmer situations. Farmers can use land with a high, moderate or low erosion status and often have rather different socio‐economic settings. The net benefits over 5 yr for bench terraces, fanya juu terraces and grass strips were illustrated to assist farmers in making informed decisions on SWC adoption. The two tools increased awareness on the need for collective actions among farmers and showed fields that cause run‐on on downslope fields. The improved awareness of erosion problems and the related financial consequences increased farmers' willingness to share the investment costs for cut‐off drains. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Enhancement of area‐specific land‐use objectives for land development

Maps of land‐use classes and soil series were analysed to identify areas having specific priorities with respect to agricultural land‐use analysis. Remote sensing data supported by field investigations was used to generate land‐use and soil maps. Present relationships between soils and associated land cover/use are analysed and patterns in these relationships are identified using GIS techniques. Relationships observed on the basis of a priori knowledge of the area and the available statistics are compared and these relationships in the field and through interviews with farmers are correlated. This allows three land‐use analysis objectives to be formulated: crop management improvement; crop selection; and conservation. The results can be used to focus the efforts of planning and extension services in the area. The method was tested using a participatory rural appraisal in eighteen villages in which the areas for the three land‐use analysis objectives were identified. The findings are that the areas identified for crop management improvement require knowledge about management practices for a specific crop to optimize yield and water use. Most areas identified for crop selection are occupied by smallholder subsistence farmers with insufficient water for irrigation, and a lack of contact with the extension service. In these areas, identifying suitable crops to minimize risk and allow subsistence for the resource‐poor farmers may be the priority. In areas identified for conservation the question to be addressed is whether to grow a crop at all, or to encourage alternative activities. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fencing for conservation: Restriction of evolutionary potential or a riposte to threatening processes?

Fencing for conservation is an acknowledgement that we are failing to successfully coexist with and, ultimately, conserve biodiversity. Fences arose during the Neolithic revolution to demarcate resource-rich areas (food sources) and exclude threats (intruders). Fencing for conservation can be viewed as fulfilling a similar function. The aims of this paper were to identify when fencing can and is used to conserve biodiversity; highlight the costs and benefits of fencing for conservation; and make recommendations to ensure appropriate use of fencing for conservation in the future. The IUCN identifies ten major threatening processes and the impacts of eight of these can be mitigated via the use of fencing, however avoiding human-animal conflict and reducing the impact of introduced predators are the two most common uses. Fences implemented to achieve a conservation benefit are not necessarily physical barriers, but can also include ‘metaphorical’ fences of sound, smoke and smell, or even actual islands. Fences provide defined units for managers and separate biodiversity from threatening processes including human persecution, invasive species and disease. Conversely, they are costly to build and maintain; they have ecological costs through blocking migration routes, restriction of biodiversity range use which may result in overabundance, inbreeding and isolation; restriction of evolutionary potential; management; amenity and ethical costs. Despite these problems, fencing for conservation is likely to become increasingly utilized as biodiversity becomes increasingly threatened and methods of ameliorating threats lag behind. In the long-term, fences may ultimately prove to be as much a threat to biodiversity as the threats they are meant to exclude, and a new research agenda should arise to ensure that conservation fences do not remain a permanent part of the landscape.