Effect of dietary fumonisin B1 on laying Japanese quail

1. A 28-d experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of fumonisin B1 (FB1) on egg production and egg quality of young laying Japanese quail fed on fumonisin-contaminated rations. 2. To this end, 128 7-week-old birds were randomly distributed into 4 experimental groups (32 birds per group) and given rations containing 0 (control), 10, 50 and 250mg FB1/kg feed. Each treatment consisted of 4 replicates of 8 quail. Egg production and egg weight were checked daily. Feed consumption and feed conversion were determined weekly. Eggs laid on the last day of each 7-d period were collected and subjected to individual analysis for specific gravity, Haugh units and percentage eggshell. 3. Compared with controls, quail given > or = 50 mg FB1/kg had reduced feed intake and lower body weight gain. Feed conversion was reduced only in birds given 250 mg FB1/kg. 4. Mean egg production and egg weight were lower in birds given 250mg FB1/kg. Eggshell weight was reduced in birds given > or =50mg FB1/kg. However, mean specific gravity, Haugh units and percentage eggshell were not affected by FB1. 5. No histopathological changes were observed in liver, kidney or heart samples from any treatment group. 6. The results indicated that exposure to FB1 at concentrations > or = 50 mg/kg could adversely affect quail performance, emphasising the importance of controlling fumonisin contamination of quail rations.     

Effect of clinoptilolite on performance of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) during experimental aflatoxicosis

Clinoptilolite (CLI, a natural zeolite), incorporated into the diet at 50 g/kg, was evaluated for its ability to reduce the deleterious effects of 2.0 mg total aflatoxin (AF;83.06% AFB1, 12.98% AFB2, 2.84% AFG1 and 1.12% AFG2)/kg diet on growing Japanese quail chicks from 10 to 45 d of age. A total of 40 Japanese quail chicks were divided into 4 treatment groups (control, AF, CLI, AF plus CLI) each consisting of 10 chicks. The performance of the birds was evaluated. The AF treatment significantly decreased food consumption and body weight gain from the 3rd week onwards. The adverse effect of AF on food conversion ratio was also significant from week 4 of the experiment. The addition of CLI to an AF-containing diet significantly reduced the deleterious effects of AF on food consumption, body weight gain and food conversion ratio. Food consumption was reduced by 14% in quail chicks consuming the AF diet without CLI, but by only 6% for quail chicks consuming the AF plus CLI diet. Similarly, overall body weight gain was reduced by 27% in birds consuming the AF diet without CLI, but by only 8% for birds consuming the AF plus CLI diet. The addition of CLI to the AF-free diet significantly decreased food consumption and body weight gain during week 4, but these parameters were similar to the controls in week 5. No mortality was observed in any of the groups. These results suggest that CLI effectively diminished the detrimental effects of AF on the variables investigated in this study.     

The subacute and subchronic toxicity of chlorophacinone in Japanese quail (Coturnix c. japonica)

Accordingly to the subacute toxicity of chlorphacinone to Japanese quail (LC 50: 60 mg/kg feed), the uptake of Delicia-chlorphacinone-baits for several days can be lethal to birds as a matter of principle. A subchronic study resulted in a "no-observed-effect-level" of 1 mg chlorphacinon/kg feed. Reproduction is not affected until dose levels which resulted in lethality or are accompanied by physiological changes (coagulability of blood, microcytic anaemia). Increased sensibility of descendants to chlorphacinone cannot be derived from the findings.     

Biological suppression of aflatoxicosis in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) by dietary addition of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).

The amelioration of aflatoxicosis in Japanese quails was examined by the dietary addition of live yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae; SCE). Yeast incorporated into the diet at 1 g kg(-1) was evaluated for its ability to reduce the deleterious effects of 2.5 mg total aflatoxin (AF; 82.30 per cent AFB1, 2.06 per cent AFB2, 7.68 per cent AFG1 and 7.96 per cent AFG2) kg(-1)diet on growing Japanese quail chicks from 10 days to 45 days of age. Forty 10-day-old Japanese quail chicks were assigned to 2x2 factorial arrangement of treatments (control, AF, SCE, AF plus SCE) each consisting of 10 quails. The performances of birds were evaluated. The AF treatment significantly and dramatically decreased food consumption and body-weight gain from the first week onwards. The significant adverse effect of AF on the food conversion ratio was also determined from week 1 to the end of the experiments. The addition of SCE to the AF -containing diet significantly reduced these deleterious effects of AF on food consumption, body-weight gain and food conversion ratio. Compared to controls, the cumulative body weight gain was reduced by 37 per cent among the quails consuming AF without SCE, but increased 15 per cent for the birds fed AF plus SCE. Interestingly, the single inclusion of SCE to the AF-free diet provided significant improvements in all the investigated growth performances of birds (approximately 40 per cent) compared to controls.     

Changes in plasma gonadotrophins, 17β-oestradiol,progesterone, prolactin,thyroxine and triiodothyronine concentrations in female Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) of a heavy body weight line during photo-induced ovarian growth and regression

1. Simultaneous changes of the width of the cloacal opening and plasma luteinising hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), 17β-oestradiol, progesterone, prolactin, thyroxine (T₄) and triiodothyronine (T₃) during photo-induced ovarian growth and regression were measured in commercially bred Japanese quail from a heavy body weight line.

2. Somatically mature female Japanese quail were transferred from short days (light:dark 8L:16D) at 10°C to long days (16L:8D) at 20°C, and sexually mature female Japanese quail were transferred from long to short days. All variables were measured at transfer and every five days thereafter (except for a measurement at 12 instead of 10?d) for 35?d.

3. Transfer from short to long days caused significant increases in LH, FSH, 17β-oestradiol, ovary weights and oviduct weights after five days, and in the cloacal opening after 12?d. T₃ decreased after five days, whereas no significant changes were observed in T₄ concentrations. Progesterone and prolactin both decreased after 25 long days.

4. The transfer of quail from long to short days caused significant decreases in LH, FSH, 17β-oestradiol, progesterone, prolactin, ovary and oviduct weights after 12?d and an increase in T₃. There was no significant change in T₄ concentrations. The cloacal opening decreased after 25 short days.

5. These results are the first to show simultaneous changes in gonadotrophins, sex steroids, thyroid hormones and prolactin during photo-induced gonadal growth and regression in female Japanese quail.     

Immunolocalization of sex steroid receptors in the epididymis and ductus deferens of immature and mature Japanese Quail, Coturnix Japonica

The goal of this study was to determine whether in the Japanese quail the male genital tract contains receptors for progesterone, androgen and estrogen (PR, AR and ER, respectively), which have significant roles in reproductive functions, and whether their localization changes during sexual maturation. The epididymis and ductus deferens (middle and ampulla regions) of immature (approximately 30-day-old) and mature male Japanese quail were collected and frozen sections of them were immunostained for PR, AR and ER. The immunoreaction products for AR and PR were found in the nuclei of epithelial cells in the efferent ductules, epididymal duct, and the middle and ampulla regions of the ductus deferens of mature and immature birds. In the mature birds, the epithelial cells of the efferent ductules, epididymal duct, and the middle and ampulla regions of the ductus deferens were positive for ER, although some of the cells in the ductus deferens were negative. The epithelial cells of the ductules in the epididymis stained positive for ER, but the immunoreactions were negligible in the ductus deferens of immature birds. These results suggest that the epididymis and ductus deferens in quail possesses PR, AR and ER receptors. Each receptor is expressed before sexual maturation, although enhancement of ER expression may occur during maturation.     

Exposure to 3-methyl-4-nitrophenol affects testicular morphology and induces spermatogenic cell apoptosis in immature male rats

The pollutant 3-methyl-4-nitrophenol (PNMC), a major component of diesel exhaust particles, can cause many adverse health problems. In the present study, we investigated the effects of PNMC on the testes of Sprague Dawley rats treated subcutaneously for 5 days with different doses of PNMC (1, 10 or 100 mg/kg). Exposure to PNMC caused a significant decrease in the plasma testosterone levels and in the absolute and relative weights of the testes. Severe histological lesions were observed in the testes of PNMC-treated animals. The ratio of the epithelial height to the seminiferous tubule diameter increased markedly in the PNMC-treated rats compared with the corresponding controls. In addition, PNMC exposure significantly increased the number of apoptotic spermatogenic cells compared with the controls whereas a significant decrease in the ratios of Bcl-2/Bax was observed at the same doses. These results suggest that PNMC exerts its gonadotoxicity in the rat mainly via apoptosis.     

Oral thyroxine administration mimics photoperiodically induced gonadal growth in Japanese quail

Most temperate‐zone animals are seasonal breeders. In a previous study, it was found that light‐induced hormone conversion of thyroxine (T₄) prohormone to active 3,5,3′‐triiodothyronine (T₃) in the mediobasal hypothalamus regulates photoperiodic response of gonads in Japanese quail. Here the effect of T₄ or T₃, administered in drinking water, on testicular growth in the Japanese quail kept under short days is shown. Testicular length was significantly increased in birds given T₄ at doses of 4, 8 and 10 mg/L, while any dose of T₃ had little effect on testicular growth. High doses (8 and 10 mg/L) of T₄ and T₃ resulted in high mortality and/or reduction of bodyweight. Among all of the treatment, 4 mg/L of T₄ was the most effective on photoperiodic testicular growth, which caused little reduction in bodyweight. These data provide a new conventional method for promoting gonadal growth under short days.     

Administration of pregnant mare serum gonadotropin to Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica): dose response over seven days and comparison of delivery by daily injection or osmotic pump

AIMS: This study is part of a research programme that aims to develop a method of hormone treatment to stimulate breeding in female birds. The aims of this study were to compare dose rates and two different delivery methods, daily injection or osmotic pump, for hormone treatment of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) with pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG). METHODS: PMSG (0, 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 IU PMSG/day) was administered to 6-week-old Japanese quail housed under short-day, cool-temperature conditions (8L:16D at 7-10 degrees C) by daily injections or osmotic pump for 7 days. Three additional groups were untreated: one group was dissected at Day 0, and two groups were maintained under either short-day, cool-temperature or long-day, warm-temperature (16L:8D, 20 degrees C) conditions for 7 days. Cloacal diameter was measured daily, and ovarian and oviductal mass and plasma oestradiol concentrations measured at the end of the treatment period. RESULTS: PMSG treatment stimulated ovarian and oviductal growth. After 7 days of treatment with 10-20 IU PMSG, ovarian and oviductal mass were similar to those in birds moved from short to long days. Females treated with the highest doses of PMSG (40 or 80 IU) had significantly larger cloacal diameters and ovarian and oviductal mass than other treated birds or birds maintained under long-day, warm-temperature conditions. Daily injections and osmotic pumps were equally effective methods of delivery. However, there was considerable variation in response to PMSG among individual birds and this was particularly obvious at the higher doses (20-80 IU PMSG). There were no differences in plasma oestradiol concentrations between groups treated using daily injections or osmotic pumps. CONCLUSIONS: A dose of 10 IU PMSG/day was chosen for use in future experiments with Japanese quail, for the first 7 days of treatment. The delivery method of choice for future studies will depend on the practical considerations of the research in question.     

Effect of coccidiosis on reproductive maturation of male Japanese quail

The effects of coccidiosis on reproductive development of male Japanese quail were examined. Male Japanese quail were exposed to high (5 x 10(5) sporulated oocysts/quail) or low (5 x 10(3) sporulated oocysts/quail) doses of Eimeria uzura at 16 or 30 days of age and sampled at 37 days. Quail given high doses of coccidia had reduced testes weight and lowered circulating concentrations of androgen compared with control males. Low doses of coccidia did not affect testes weight but did result in elevated plasma androgen levels. There were no differences in average testes weights by 51 days; however, plasma androgen was still reduced in most groups. To study the effects of coccidiosis on egg production, males exposed to high doses of coccidia at 16 (16H) or 30 (30H) days of age were mated with control females, and control males were mated with control or 16H females. The onset of laying was delayed for 5 days in the control male: 16H female group. During the first week of production, eggs from females bred to 30H males had lower fertility and hatchability than those bred to control or 16H males. By the third week of production, levels of fertility were similar. Apparently, exposure of quails to coccidiosis before sexual maturation might result in long-term effects on later reproductive capability.     

The Effects of Dietary l-Carnitine Supplementation on Semen Traits,Reproductive Parameters,and Testicular Histology of Japanese Quail Breeders

The present study was conducted to determine the effects of supplemental dietary l-carnitine at different levels on semen traits, reproductive parameters, and testicular histology in male Japanese quail breeders. Forty-five 5-wk-old male Japanese quail breeders were fed the same basal diet that was supplemented with 0 (control), 250, or 500 mg of l-carnitine/kg of diet. There were no significant effects of dietary l-carnitine supplementation at different levels on BW, feed intake, testes weight, fertility rate, hatchability rate of set and fertile eggs, and malonaldehyde production (μg/mL of semen) of male Japanese quail breeders. However, the supplementation of dietary l-carnitine at levels of 250 or 500 mg/kg to a basal diet significantly increased sperm viability and decreased multinucleated giant cells per testes in mature male Japanese quail breeders. Additional studies are required to explore the antioxidant role that l-carnitine has in Japanese quail breeders.     

Induction of ovarian growth and ovulation by administration of a chicken gonadotrophin preparation to Japanese quail kept under a short-day regimen.

1. Chronic administration of a glycoprotein fraction from chicken pituitary using an ALZET osmotic pump at 12.5 micrograms/h for 2 weeks induced growth of ovarian follicles to a mature size in the ovary and deposition of yolk in sexually immature 6-week-old Japanese quail females which were kept under 8L:16D short-day conditions. However, no ovulation was induced in these birds. 2. Injection of 500 micrograms of the glycoprotein into other immature short-day females was performed following the above chronic administration, 12 or 14 and 15 d after implantation of the osmotic pump. About 24 h after injection, 3 of 14 females laid one or two eggs. Ovulation was confirmed in 4 females by autopsy. A total of 5 of 14 females ovulated 6 eggs, and significant development of the oviduct and the cloacal opening were observed in all of the treated females. 3. Thus, complete ovarian function could be induced in sexually immature female Japanese quail by administration of avian gonadotrophin using a combination of an osmotic pump and an injection.     

Effects of vitamin E and selenium on performance, digestibility of nutrients, and carcass characteristics of Japanese quails reared under heat stress (34 degrees C)

This study was conducted to determine the effects of vitamin E (dL-alpha-Tocopheryl acetate) and selenium (Se; Na2-SeO3) on performance, digestibility of nutrients and carcass characteristics of Japanese quails reared under chronic heat stress (34 degrees C). A total of 120 10-day-old Japanese quails were randomly assigned to four treatment groups, three replicates of 10 birds each. The birds with a 2 x 2 factorial design received either two levels of vitamin E (125 and 250 mg/kg of diet) or two levels of Se (0.1 or 0.2 mg/kg of diet). A 250-mg vitamin E/kg of diet compared with that of 125 mg/kg of diet and higher dietary Se inclusions (0.1 vs. 0.2 mg/kg) resulted in a better performance (p=0.001). The interaction between vitamin E and Se for feed intake (p=0.03), final body weight change (p=0.03) and feed efficiency (p=0.001) was detected. Carcass yield increased with increasing both dietary vitamin E and Se (p=0.001). The interactions on carcass characteristics were all non-significant (p > 0.06). Digestibility of nutrients (DM, OM, CP and ether extract) was higher with higher dietary vitamin E (p=0.03), and DM digestibility was also higher with higher dietary Se (p=0.05). There were no interactions detected for digestibility of nutrients (p=0.28). From the results of the present study, it was concluded that a combination of 250 mg of vitamin E and 0.2 mg of Se provides the greatest performance in Japanese quails reared under heat stress and this combination can be considered as a protective management practice in Japanese quail diets, reducing the negative effects of heat stress.     

Changes in plasma gonadotrophins, testosterone, prolactin, thyroxine and triiodothyronine concentrations in male Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) of a heavy body weight line during photo-induced testicular growth and regression

1. Simultaneous changes of cloacal gland area (CGA) and plasma luteinising hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), testosterone (T), prolactin (PRL), thyroxine (T₄) and triiodothyronine (T₃) during photo-induced testicular growth and regression were measured in commercially bred Japanese quail from a heavy body weight line.

2. Somatically mature male Japanese quail were transferred from short days (light:dark 8L:16D) at 10°C, to long days (16L:8D) at 20°C; and sexually mature male Japanese quail were transferred from long to short days. All variables were measured at transfer and every 5?d thereafter for 35?d.

3. Transfer from short to long days caused significant increases in LH, FSH, T and testis weight (TW) after 5?d, and in CGA after 10?d. T₃ decreased after 5?d, whereas T₄ increased significantly after 25 long days and PRL did not undergo any consistent change. The testicular growth rate was k?=?0·1146.

4. Transferring quail from long to short days caused significant decreases in LH and FSH after 5?d, and decreases in T, TW and CGA after 10?d. T₄ decreased after 5?d whilst T₃ increased significantly by day 15. PRL decreased significantly after 10?d then rose before declining again. The testicular regression rate was k?=?0·0582.

5. The rates of photo-induced testicular development and regression in a strain of large Japanese quail did not differ from rates reported for other strains of quail. CGA was a better indicator of TW than plasma T concentrations during growth and regression. The role of PRL in photo-induced reproductive cycles in male Japanese quail remains to be determined.

6. The photoperiod-induced changes in gonad size and hormone concentrations, together provide valuable information that can be used in future studies of the endocrinology and neuroendocrinology of photoperiodism in birds.     

Interaction between Eimeria uzura infection and aflatoxicosis in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

The clinical signs and gross lesions caused by Eimeria uzura (10(5) oocysts) in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) exhibited little or no influence in the face of intercurrent dietary aflatoxicosis (1 p.p.m. of aflatoxin B1 from Day 0 to 55). Similarly, no significant differences in the mucosal morphology of the intestine were evident histologically between the two groups of Japanese quail. The nervous signs of ataxia, leg weakness, incoordination of movement, torticollis and terminal opisthotonos were toxin-induced manifestations. In the aflatoxic quail, hypoplastic changes and selective depletion of lymphocytes were more prominent in the bursa of fabricius. Increased relative mean weights of liver, kidney, spleen, crop, proventriculus and gizzard were observed in birds due to aflatoxin sensitivity. The combination of E. uzura infection and aflatoxicosis in Japanese quail may cause significant weight loss, and increased oocyst production and reproductive potential.     

Temporal pattern of locomotor activity recuperation after administration of propofol in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

The present study evaluates the organization and complexity of the temporal pattern of locomotion after an acute administration of propofol in Japanese quail by using traditional and fractal analysis. Birds were administered with propofol 0, 10, 20, 40 or 80 mg/kg. Ten min after administration, they were placed in an open-field apparatus and their locomotor activity was recorded during 45 min at a resolution of 0.5 s. A significant dose dependant increase in the latency to initiate ambulation was observed for doses of 20, 40 and 80 mg/kg when compared to the control group. A rapid recuperation of normal locomotor activity was observed after sedation with 20 mg/kg. Birds administered with propofol 40 mg/kg showed signs of recuperation of normal locomotion after 30 and 40 min (males and females, respectively) of propofol administration, that was not observed in quail treated with propofol 80 mg/kg. Our results suggest that depending on the dose, propofol administration in quail may allow full locomotor recovery of a sedative/anesthetic dose as early as 30 min post-administration.     

Effects of Fusarium moniliforme culture material containing known levels of fumonisin B1 on progress of Salmonella Gallinarum infection in Japanese quail: clinical signs and hematologic studies

To study the individual and combined effects of fumonisin B1 (FB1) toxicity and Salmonella serotype Gallinarum infection, Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) were fed Fusarium moniliforme culture material (2.5%), 150 mg FB1/kg ration, and were subsequently challenged orally with Salmonella Gallinarum organisms (2 x 10(4) colony-forming units) at 21 days of age. The chicks were fed culture material containing FB1 from day 5 till the end of the experiment. After being infected with Salmonella Gallinarum, observations were made 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 14, and 21 days postinfection. The clinical signs of diarrhea with bloody discharges were more pronounced in the Salmonella-infected birds on the FB1 diet. Mortality caused by Salmonella Gallinarum increased by 12% in the presence of FB1. Mean body weights in both the Salmonella-infected and FB1-fed groups were significantly lower than those of the controls at almost all intervals. Mean values of hemoglobin, packed cell volume, and total erythrocyte count were slightly higher in birds fed FB1 but were lower in the Salmonella Gallinarum groups fed FB1 and plain chick mash. Anemia was evident, between 5 and 10 days postinfection, in quail chicks infected with Salmonella Gallinarum alone. Total leukocyte counts were higher in Salmonella-infected and FB1-fed groups because of an increase in the number of heterophils and lymphocytes. However, the increase in lymphocyte response to infection was lower by 4.27%-30.09% between 3 and 21 days postinfection in the FB1-fed chicks compared with chicks infected with Salmonella Gallinarum. Alanine transaminase and total serum protein were slightly higher in both the infected and FB1-fed groups. This study revealed that the continuous presence of fumonisins in the diets of quail chicks might increase the susceptibility to or the severity of Salmonella Gallinarum infection.     

Pharmacokinetics of gentamicin in blood plasma of quail, pheasants, and cranes.

Rate of appearance, peak concentration, and the biological half-life of gentamicin in the plasma of quail (Coturnix coturnix), pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), and cranes (Grus canadensis tabida) were studied. Gentamicin was given IM in doses of 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg of body weight. Peak plasma concentrations occurred earliest in the quail, latest in the cranes. The peak concentrations varied directly with the administered doses in all species. The biological half-life of gentamicin was 42 +/- 12 minutes in the quail, 75 +/- 15 minutes in the pheasants, and 165 +/- 37 minutes in the cranes. On the basis of the present data, dosage regimens for gentaminic of 5 mg/kg every 8 hours in pheasants and cranes, and 10 mg/kg every 6 hours in quail, would be expected to give constant plasma concentrations greater than 4.0 micrograms/ml.     

Consequences of endocrine disrupting chemicals on reproductive endocrine function in birds: establishing reliable end points of exposure

It has been difficult to establish reliable indices of exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) appropriate for a variety of avian species because of a vast array of reproductive strategies. Data from mammals, reptiles and fish provide insight on likely mechanisms of action for EDCs. However, many of the effects of EDCs are weaker than the actions of the native hormones, making it difficult to assess adverse effects in domestic and wild birds. It is clear that differential sensitivity to EDCs exists across species, due to the timing and mode of exposure, compound toxicity and age of the individual. Our studies on EDCs are conducted in the quail model system, with focus on reproductive endocrine, neuroendocrine and behavioral responses. Studies have included EDC exposure, either by egg injection or via diet. Results from egg injection studies showed the following: (1) estradiol administered by embryonic day 12 demasculinized male sexual behavior, altered hypothalamic neurotransmitters and reduced hen day production and fertility in a dose dependent fashion, (2) methoxychlor (MXC) or vinclozolin impaired male sexual behavior in adult quail and (3) DDE exposure impaired reproductive and immune related end points. Two-generation studies were conducted on Japanese and northern bobwhite quail with dietary methoxychlor (MXC) exposure (0, 5 and 10 ppm) beginning in adults (P1), continuing in their offspring (F1), with F2 offspring raised on control diet. MXC exposure impaired male sexual behavior, hypothalamic catecholamines and plasma steroid hormones. Moreover, MXC exposure had reproductive consequences observable at both the lower and higher doses of MXC in F1 and F2 generations. These data demonstrate that embryonic EDC exposure interferes with sexual differentiation of neural systems that direct reproduction.     

Comparative toxicity of coniine, an alkaloid of Conium maculatum (poison hemlock), in chickens, quails, and turkeys

Coniine, an alkaloid of Conium maculatum (poison hemlock), was administered by gavage to immature chickens, quails, and turkeys at 0, 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg body weight. At 25 mg coniine/kg body weight, clinical signs were observed only in quails (2/10) and consisted of excitement, depression, hypermetria, seizures, opisthotonos, and flaccid paralysis. Chickens (9/10) and quails (8/10) dosed at 50 mg/kg body weight were affected, and several birds of each species died (2/10 and 5/10, respectively). Turkeys (7/10) were affected only when dosed at 100 mg/kg body weight, and quails (6/10), turkeys (4/10), and chickens (10/10) died at this dose. There were no gross or microscopic lesions. Coniine was detected in skeletal muscle and liver of birds dying after ingestion and was present in some survivors 7 days post-treatment.