The ossification of the pectoral girdle and wing skeleton of the quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

The onset of ossification centres of the pectoral girdle and wing skeleton of the quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) has been studied in embryos and juvenile birds, which were sampled daily from the 4th day of incubation up to the 12th day after hatching. Specimens, which were cleared and were stained with Alcian Blue and Alizarin Red S, were examined at the stereomicroscope. The furcula ossified with intramembranous ossification at the 7th day of incubation. The first centres of perichondral ossification in the scapula and the coracoid bones were observed at the 7th day of incubation. In the humerus, radius and ulna, perichondral ossification was observed at the 6th day of incubation. The carpal bones were ossified between the 8th and 10th day of the post-hatching period. The 2nd metacarpal bone began to ossify at the 6th day of the post-hatching period, whereas the 3rd and 4th metacarpal bones were ossified at the 7th day of incubation. At the 9th day of incubation, ossification was observed in the 1st phalanx of the alular digit and in the phalanges of the major digit. The 2nd phalanx of the alular digit began to ossify at the 12th, whereas the phalanx of the minor digit at the 14th day of incubation. The data presented here provide useful baseline information on the normal sequential pattern of ossification in the pectoral girdle and wing skeleton in this species.     

Variations of the Extensor Digitorum Brevis Muscle in the Dog

The variation of the extensor digitorum brevis (EDB) muscle was examined in 113 hindlimbs of dogs. Four types were discriminated in this muscle. Of the three heads of the muscle, the medial head went to the 2nd digit in types I and II, and to the 2nd and 3rd digits in types III and IV. The middle head went to the 3rd digit in types I and IV, and to the 3rd and 4th digits in types II and III. The lateral head went to the 4th digit in all the types. Type II was the most common of the four (78.76 %). Type III was found in 8.85%, type 1 in 973% and type IV in 2.66%.     

Distal limb radiography, ossification, and growth plate closure in the juvenile Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)

Eleven juvenile Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were evaluated radiographically to determine the relative times of growth plate closure and phalangeal ossification in the bones of the distal forelimb. Specifically, the first, second, and third phalanges of the third digit (D3) were evaluated, as well as the third phalanx of digits 1, 2, 4, and 5. All elephants were healthy at the time of examination. A retrospective evaluation of radiographs from six of the 11 juvenile elephants was also completed to augment the data set. This study reports the methods used to obtain high-quality radiographs of the distal juvenile elephant limb, ossification characteristics of the phalanges, relative times of growth plate closure within the proximal phalanges of D3, and a method for age estimation based on radiographic findings. This study will help clinicians in conducting elephant foot radiography, in evaluating foot radiographs in juvenile elephants, in recognizing normal versus pathologic change, and in estimating juvenile elephant age based on radiographic ossification characteristics and growth plate closure times. Consistent use of the proposed foot radiograph technique is recommended to facilitate foot disease recognition and as part of the annual examination of captive Asian elephants.     

Surgical treatment of simple syndactylism with secondary deep digital flexor tendon contracture in a Basset Hound.

A five-month-old, female Basset Hound was presented for lameness associated with a fused 3rd and 4th digital pad on the left hind limb (simple incomplete syndactyly), and secondary contracture of the deep digital flexure tendon of the 3rd and 4th digit. An onychectomy of the third phalanx of the third and fourth digits was performed. Following the operation, the dog gained good use of the affected limb for one month until intermittent non-weight bearing lameness developed. A second surgery was performed six months later, partially removing the second phalanx of digits three and four. Follow-up reports indicate that the dog is doing well and is without lameness. This is the first report of deep digital flexor tendon contracture and surgical treatment of this complication in canine simple syndactylism.     

Radiographic evolution of the forelimb digit in Ardenner horses from weaning to 28 months of age and its clinical significance

Ossification of collateral cartilages is a common radiographic finding in draught horses and indication of a high frequency of interphalangeal osteo-arthropathy have been found in Ardenner horses. This study first aimed at following the evolution of the digits of the forelimbs on radiographic images in a group of 32 Ardenner horses from weaning to 852 +/- 19 days and, secondly, at evaluating the clinical significance of the observed radiographic changes. At 250 +/- 21 days, only 23% of the horses presented a small separate ossification centre of collateral cartilages above the level of the distal sesamoid bone or at the level of the proximal half of the middle phalanx. At 852 +/- 19 days, 100% of the horses presented an ossification of collateral cartilages but at different stages and grades. The presence and the extent of the ossification of the lateral cartilages were not significantly associated with lameness. Phalanges changes appeared at the average age of 1 year and they were represented by entheseophytes on the dorsal surface of the middle and distal phalanges. The frequency of affected horses increased with age as well as the size of the entheseophytes. This may reflect mechanical stresses applied to the interphalangeal joints. A significant association with the presence of lameness was pointed out. The presence and the severity of phalanges changes could be of importance, in combination with a clinical examination, in improving the selection of horses able to assume work and/or leisure activities.     

Unilateral forelimb partial aphalangia in a kitten

Congenital limb deformities are rarely reported in the cat. The macroscopic and radiographic features of aphalangia are described in a 2-month-old male kitten showing a shortened limb that ended, at the level of the carpus, in a stump without digits. A nail was present at the level of the first phalanx and on the palmar surface only two footpads were present. The radiographs showed an absence of phalanges. The first metacarpal and the proximal and distal phalanges of digit 1 were present. The deformed metacarpal bones were reduced in length; the carpal bones were incompletely ossified. This defect is a rare condition in many animal species. To the author's knowledge, the congenital fore limb deformity described here is the first documented case in a cat.     

Spread bow leg syndrome in ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks aged 2 to 12 weeks

1. The incidence of spread bow leg syndrome and associated pathology in 15 ostrich chicks aged 2, 4, 8 and 12 weeks is reported. Measurements were made of hind limbs: femur plus tibiotarsus; tarsometatarus; phalanx I, digit III; phalanx II, digit III plus phalanx III, digit III; and phalanx IV, digit III. 2. A run was constructed (6 m x 1.7 m) and subdivided into 2 m sections and the time taken to traverse it was recorded. Measurements (cm) were made of the left and right footprints; the number of footprints and average stride length in 0 to 2, 3 to 4 and 5 to 6 m. Speed was calculated using distance run (m) divided by time taken (s). 3. The number of steps was greater in bow leg chicks aged 4 and 8 weeks by comparison with healthy birds. Stride length, however, was smaller in all age groups with bow leg. All speeds in bow leg chicks were lower than those in healthy birds, except for that recorded at 2 m in chicks aged 2 weeks which did not differ markedly. 4. In affected birds, feathers were sparse. Icterus was present. The tarsometatarsus was twisted, with severely inflamed joints, eroded distal ends, thickening of the cartilage and the presence of fibrous material surrounding the ligaments. Muscles in the hind limb were emaciated. 5. The syndrome compromises the ability of chicks to keep up with adults in flocks, and may compromise their ability to escape predation.     

The normal development of Mongolian gerbil foetuses and, in particular, the timing and sequence of the appearance of ossification centres

To elucidate the normal development and growth of Mongolian gerbils, the timing and sequence of the appearance of ossification centres within foetuses were investigated. Average foetus body weight and tail length on the 15th day of pregnancy were found to be 0.042 g and 6.2 mm, respectively. For the 25th day of pregnancy, these measurements were 2.601 g and 29.4 mm, respectively. The body weight and tail length of foetuses increased significantly from the 20th day of pregnancy. Also, the first ossification centre of Mongolian gerbil foetuses appeared in the clavicle at the 17th day of pregnancy. The order in which ossification centres appeared in Mongolian gerbils resembles the pattern for rats and mice, except in some areas of the skull. Except for the clavicle, in which ossification centres appeared rather early, most ossification centres appeared in the last quarter of pregnancy. These results suggest that Mongolian gerbil foetal development is near completion by the last gestational stage. Also, ossification centres appear sooner in the skull and nasal bones than in other rodents.     

Changes in the skeletal dimensions of the digits of the thoracic limb of Holstein cows after maturation

The 12 left digits of the thoracic limb of Holstein female cows were obtained from a slaughterhouse, and 13 linear measurements of skeletal specimens of the digits of the thoracic limb were used in this study. Bivariate plots, regressions and correlation analyses were performed to assess the relationships between osteometric data and age, and between osteometric data and body size. The geometric mean (GM) of the metacarpal size was used as a proxy of body weight. The results of the regression analysis demonstrated that the length and the width of the distal phalanx were significantly correlated with age, whereas those of other bones were not. In addition, the correlations of the distal phalanx tended to be higher with age than with the GM of the metacarpal size, and their skeletal measurements tended to be longer in older animals than in younger animals. These findings suggest that the distal phalanx is slightly elongated and enlarged in its solear aspect with increasing age in skeletally mature cows. Moreover, although the side difference in the distal phalanx between the lateral and medial digits did not increase significantly with age, the solear aspect of the distal phalanx tended to be rougher, and deformation of the flexor tubercle tended to be more pronounced in the medial digit compared with the lateral digit. Therefore, in the distal phalanx of the front feet, the skeletal deformation with age and asymmetrical bone development might be related to the pathogenesis of claw horn lesions, as in the hind feet.     

Postnatal Osteological Development of the Hyoid Bone in the New Zealand White Rabbit

This study augments knowledge of bone growth by observing the development of the hyoid bone in the New Zealand White rabbit. Preserved hyoid bones representing five different age periods, each period including five individuals and the total number of animals being 25, were fixed in 3.5% formaldehyde solution and 95% ethanol, followed by a pure acetone bath. They were then stained with an alcian blue–alizarin red combination. The mode of bone formation was intracartilaginous type ossification. While the basihyoideum and thyrohyoideum were observed to start ossifying first at prenatal stage, indicating that they are the main skeletal structures of the hyoid apparatus, the ceratohyoideum and lingual process began to ossify in the second and third periods. The separately occurring primary ossification centres fused completely among themselves in the fifth period. Because no further ossification centers were observed and the ossified parts continued the development and growth, the research was terminated after 10 weeks of age.     

双峰驼指关节解剖

运用大体解剖学方法对双峰驼三十个指关节进行解剖研究,发现如下特征:籽骨间韧带只连接同一指上的两枚籽骨,无连于籽骨与对侧近指节骨近端的指关节籽骨韧带,也无籽骨直韧带;第二指近指节骨与第四指的近指节骨之间无韧带连接;近指节间关节缺掌侧韧带;远指节无远籽骨,但有软骨板,还有一对背侧韧带。     

Congenital malformation of the front limbs in a llama (Lama glama): polydactyly in combination with arthrogryposis

A male, 10 month old llama with malformation of both front limbs was presented. Both front limbs had one more digit located medially. The distal phalanx of this additional digit at the left front limb reached the ground by the tip of the keratinzed pad and the toenail. The accessory digit at the right front limb was bent in a 90 degree angle caudolateraly. Beside the digital bones of the accessory digits the second metacarpal bone and the first carpal bone could be detected in both front limbs by radiological examination. Secondary a bilateral slight carpal valgus deformity could be seen.     

Radiographic Measurement of Hindlimb Digit Length in Standing Heifers

The digital skeleton of the hindlimbs was evaluated radiographically in 27 standing Brown Swiss heifers. The lateral digital skeleton was significantly longer than its medial counterpart on both a hard (wooden block) and a softer (wooden block covered with a thin rubber mat) surface. There were no significant differences between lengths measured on the hard and the soft surface. The difference between the length of the lateral and medial digits originated at the level of the condyles and increased with P1 and P2. It was partially compensated by a higher third phalanx (P3) in the medial digit, but this did not offset the overall length difference. The findings of this study confirmed that the length asymmetry of the paired digits of cattle documented previously in post‐mortem specimens is also present in living cattle. Further investigation is required to determine the clinical relevance of the length asymmetry of the digital skeleton in cattle.     

Metastatic digital carcinoma in the cat: a retrospective study of 36 cats (1992-1998)

Thirty-six cats with bronchogenic carcinoma metastatic to the digit were identified. The mean age was 12.7 years, with no breed or sex predilection. Records from 19 cases were available for review. These cats presented with a primary complaint of lameness that involved primarily weight-bearing digits and the third phalanx. None had respiratory signs, despite the presence of pulmonary carcinoma. Course of disease was consistent in the 19 cases, with a mean survival time of 58 days from initial presentation. Amputation of affected digits was rarely palliative due to development of lesions in other digits and progressive nonrespiratory disease.     

Estimates of heritability for ossification of the cartilages of the front feet in the Finnhorse

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Ossification of the cartilages in the foot is common in coldblooded horses, but prevalence as well as ossification pattern varies between breeds; research on estimation of heritability for the condition has been limited. OBJECTIVES: Our purpose was to calculate estimates of 1) heritability for ossification parameters of the cartilages in the front feet of the Finnhorse and 2) genetic correlations between the different ossification parameters. METHODS: Estimates of heritability for different ossification parameters of the cartilages in the front feet and of genetic correlations between different parameters were evaluated in data consisting of dorsopalmar radiographs of the front feet and pedigree up to the fourth generation of 964 Finnhorses (age > or = 2 years; 345 females and 619 males). Ossification at the base of the cartilages and total ossification, including separate centres of ossification, were graded 0-5 according to the most proximal point of ossification and the presence of separate centres of ossification was recorded separately. The data were analysed using a model including a fixed sex-age subclass effect and a random animal effect. Variance and covariance components were estimated with the restricted maximum likelihood (REML) method assuming an animal model. RESULTS: Females had more ossification than males and this difference increased with age. The ossification in the medial cartilages progressed significantly with age in females but not in males. In the lateral cartilages, the increase in ossification with age was evident in both sexes. Separate centres of ossification were an incidental finding. Estimates of heritability for the ossification parameters varied slightly between the cartilages as well as between the front feet. For total ossification, the estimates of heritability varied between 0.31 (right lateral) and 0.50 (left medial) and were slightly higher for ossification at the base of the cartilages. High genetic correlations were found for total ossification between the medial and lateral cartilages in the foot and for parallel ossification parameters between the right and left foot. CONCLUSIONS: The estimates of heritability were relatively high, and both cartilages and front feet have a similar genetic tendency to ossify. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This information is useful in further studies assessing other factors contributing to the ossification process and also in the planning and modifying breeding programmes.     

Subchondral bone cysts with fractures of the extensor processes in a horse.

Probable cause of fracture in a Paint gelding was a congenital bone defect involving the extensor process area of the right and left forelimb distal phalanges. Radiographically and histologically, subchondral bone cysts at the fracture lines were suspected. These cysts were thought to have developed in association with abnormal ossification centers at the extensor process areas of the third phalanx. Partial avulsion of weak extensor processes would then occur from natural forces exerted on these weakened bony prominences via the common digital extensor tendon. Support for osteochondrosis as a cause of this bone cyst formation was seen in histologic examination of fragments removed. Within the bony trabeculae, a dysplastic focus of cartilage with mineralized plaques and osseous tissues was observed. Findings supported a diagnosis of osteochondrosis, to the extent that the disease is presently understood in horses. Surgical correction by fragment removal was performed to circumvent progression of degenerative joint disease, which was evident as partial cartilage erosion of the distal dorsal articular surface of the second phalanx and fracture fragments. Recovery from surgery was rapid, and several months after surgery, the horse was sound for pleasure riding.     

Anatomic variations and degenerative changes in the collateral cartilages and middle and distal phalanges of the forelimb in Ardenner colts

The anatomic variations and the degenerative changes in the collateral cartilages and middle and distal phalanges in 6 Ardenner colts were characterized by radiography, scintigraphy, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The radiographic changes were assessed between the ages of 16.5 and 25 months. An anatomic variation of the middle and distal phalanges was demonstrated in some of the colts. MRI examination of the 6 colts revealed an association between the deep digital flexor tendon cross-sectional area and body weight as well as foot circumference. Also, a thin collateral sesamoidean (suspensory navicular) ligament was observed subjectively. The presence of an extensive ossification of the collateral cartilages of the foot was found in these young horses. The ossification was characterized by the existence of 2 separate ossification centers, which had a tendency to unite. The radiographic interphalangeal degenerative lesions seen appear as bone remodeling of the dorsal edges of the middle and distal phalanx, on the insertion sites of collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint, the digital extensor tendon, and the distal interphalangeal joint capsule.     

The merit of using untreated, HCl-treated amd partly-hydrolyzed straw meal in the feeding regime for piglets after early weaning. 3. Parameters of protein, fat, carbohydrates and mineral metabolism in the blood serum of the piglet

In parallel studies with piglets of the country race the applicability of variously treated straw materials was tested in comparison with the conventional feeding of concentrate (I) after an early weaning date (30th-35th day of life) over a feeding period of 8 weeks (1st-8th week of keeping). In the rations containing 10% straw (concentrate-straw mixtures), untreated (II), HCl treated (III:HCl treatment without steaming) and partly hydrolyzed straw meal (IV:HCl treatment with subsequent steaming) were tested. In the 2nd and 8th weeks of keeping blood samples were taken from 4 animals of each group and selected parameters of the protein, fat, carbohydrate and mineral metabolism were subsequently ascertained from the blood serum. About half of the total of the 13 selected parameters showed reactions of the intermediary metabolism of the test groups caused by the feeding. With the parameters on the whole varying in the normal physiologic range, a decrease in the blood urea and creatinine concentration and an increase in the blood glucose level were detected after the use of the concentrate-straw mixtures (III and IV) in comparison with the sole feeding of concentrate (I) and partly also in comparison with untreated straw meal (II), their intensity varying in dependence on feeding and test duration. Particularly towards the end of the experiment, an increase of the activity of alkaline phosphatase was also characteristic, which was in negative correlation with the P content of the serum and in positive correlation with growth performance. The physiologic parameters are discussed in connection with the higher growth performance at reduced concentrate expenditure achieved in III and IV in comparison to I and II.