Compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product management in natural tropical forests: Perspectives,challenges, and opportunities

Tropical forests could satisfy multiple demands for goods and services both for present and future generations. Yet integrated approaches to natural forest management remain elusive across the tropics. In this paper we examine one combination of uses: selective harvesting of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction. We analyze the current status of this combination and speculate on prospects and challenges regarding: (i) resource inventory, (ii) ecology and silviculture, (iii) conflict in the use of multipurpose tree species, (iv) wildlife conservation and use, (v) tenure, and (vi) product certification. Our conclusions remain preliminary due to the relative paucity of published studies and lessons learned on what has worked and what has not in the context of integrated management for timber and NTFPs. We propose at least three ways where further research is merited. One, in improving ‘opportunistic’ situations driven by selective timber harvesting that also enhance NTFP values. Two, to explicitly enhance both timber and NTFP values through targeted management interventions. Three, to explicitly assess biophysical, social, regulatory and institutional aspects so that combined benefits are maximized. Interventions for enhancing the compatibility of timber and NTFP extraction must be scaled in relation to the size of the area being managed, applied timber harvesting intensities, and the dynamics of multi-actor, forest partnerships (e.g., between the private sector and local communities). In addition, training and education issues may have to be re-crafted with multiple-use management approaches inserted into tropical forestry curricula.     

The compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product extraction and management

We discuss the extent of compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction in two neotropical localities from biophysical, social, and institutional perspectives: the community concession forests of the Petén, Guatemala, and extractivist communities in northern Bolivia. In both localities, timber is harvested via reduced-impact logging (RIL) practices. In Guatemala, the main NTFP extracted is foliage from the understory xate palm (Chamaedorea spp.); in northern Bolivia, the fruits of the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa). The Guatemalan case suggests a relatively high degree of compatibility due to low timber harvesting intensities, coupled with temporal, spatial, and social segregation of xate extraction in a well-defined land tenure system. In northern Bolivia, forest management regulations pay little attention to NTFPs and land tenure issues and related conflict complicate efforts to limit timber harvesting impacts on Brazil nut trees. The introduction of timber management plans overlain on customary property rights systems in which the extraction of Brazil nut is organized could undercut its management system. The two case studies suggest that specific legislative, education, and project interventions may help to promote the compatibility of timber and NTFP extraction and management. These include formal training of foresters on NTFP ecology and management while taking into account the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in the design of management plans. Tropical forest users, research managers, and policy makers will also better understand the need for integrated management of timber and NTFPs, if the trade-offs and potential economic benefits from NTFP extraction are clarified.     

非木质林产品认证发展现状

对比现有的非木质林产品认证标准,分析当前非木质林产品认证现状,提出对我国发展非木质林产品认证的几点建议,包括完善非木质林产品认证标准、推进非木质林产品认证标准的国际互认、优先发展有市场前景产品的认证和加强对非木质林产品认证的宣传等。     

Financial attractiveness of smallholder tree plantations in the Amazon: bridging external expectations and local realities

This paper compares the financial attractiveness of forest and agroforestry plantations promoted by external organizations with tree growing practices of Amazonian smallholders. Based on 80 case studies and interviews with 112 forestry professionals from Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador, the paper characterizes the economic, environmental and structural implications, and identifies the respective financial costs and benefits. Six case studies provided data for in-depth financial analyses. The results showed that the expectations of externally promoted smallholder tree and agroforestry plantations were not met. Despite significant inputs, smallholders generated at best annual net incomes of US$200–$200–1,000 per ha from NTFP plantations, and up to US$800–$800–1,000 from timber plantations in the year of harvest. This corresponded to around one-third of the initially expected returns. Overall, only around 1% of the smallholders participating in such initiatives managed to produce and commercialize any plantation products. Smallholders’ practices of complementary tree growing in conjunction with agriculture and managing natural regeneration of timber and NTFP products were often underestimated by professionals. They required low input, didn’t rely on external support, were highly flexible in risky environments, and some presented financial returns comparable to some well functioning plantations.     

中葡非木质林产品认证标准比较

中国森林认证体系与葡萄牙森林认证体系均为PEFC认可的森林认证体系,中葡2国是通过PEFC认证的非木质林产品经营单位数量最多的2个国家。文中对中葡2国的森林认证体系、非木质林产品认证相关标准及认证程序进行了比较,发现2国认证体系在标准结构、认证程序、认证不符合项的整改时间、证书的有效期方面存在差异,但认证标准在内容上均有相对应的条款;研究结果可为中国森林认证体系的改进以及非木质林产品经营单位选择认证体系及认证机构提供参考。     

The non-timber forest policy process in Nepal: actors,objectives and power

The importance of commercial non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to the livelihood strategies of rural collectors in Nepal is increasingly recognised. This paper provides suggestions for improving rural collectors’ possibilities for income generation. The formation and implementation of NTFP policies in Nepal is examined by investigating the area of interactions between policy formation, choice and implementation of forest policy tools within the ‘new political economy’ approach, and suggestions are subsequently evaluated within the found practical political context. The study is based on approximately 400 interviews carried out with some 1000 stakeholders in the period 1992–1998. Following a qualitative research strategy hypotheses are formulated on the basis of patterns emerging from the data collected. The main stakeholders in NTFP collection and trade are identified to be: rural collectors and traders; local level politicians; lower level government staff; high level politicians; conservation-oriented institutions; and development oriented institutions. The objectives and influence of these stakeholders on the non-timber sector are identified and proposals for change are discussed in the light of distribution of objectives and power. It is hypothesised that NTFP policy formation, implementation and the field reality are weakly connected: implemented policy tools do not correspond to the aims of formulated policies, and field reality is not regulated in the envisioned direction by policy tools. This situation is explained by the fact that stakeholders at different levels of the policy hierarchy can influence their own level only. It is further hypothesised that a number of changes in forest legislation and regulations can have immediate and powerful effects on rural livelihoods of collectors. Taking into account the present political situation such changes may not be introduced from within the decision making process and, therefore, the view is put forward that pressure from outside the forestry sector is needed to bring about significant changes in favour of rural collectors.     

A financial analysis of rain forest silviculture in southwestern Sri Lanka

We examine the financial aspects of three silvicultural systems to encourage the sustainability of valuable hardwood species in mixed-dipterocarp forests of southwest Sri Lanka. We compare the net present value (NPV) of the current forest management approach (diameter limit harvests) with shelterwood harvests that promote light hardwood timber species. In this analysis, we also consider the potential of enrichment planting various precious timber (Diospyros quaesita — calamander), and non-timber forest product (NTFP) species (Caryota urens — fishtail palm; Elettaria cardamomum var. major — cardamom; Calamus zeylanicus — rattan) in conjunction with timber harvests. Two real (inflation adjusted) discount rates were used, 4 and 6%, respectively. Results show that when real discount rates are low (4%), and advance regeneration is present, NPV is highest for the one-cut shelterwood (US $9983 ha⁻¹). At a high discount rate (6%), reflecting the current short-term concession system and unstable rights to harvest, and where no advance regeneration was present, the diameter limit system (US $7173 ha⁻¹) was the optimum. On sites with advanced regeneration, the one-cut shelterwood system is clearly preferable. For all but rattan, shelterwood treatments provide higher NPVs for NTFPs than diameter limit cuttings primarily because of the higher light regimes and more growing space made available early in the rotation. The value for tea cultivation (US $26,000 ha⁻¹) far exceeds the value of managing these lands for timber alone, explaining the dramatic expansion in tea plantations on private lands. However, our results suggest that managing these lands for a combination of timber and enrichment plantings of NTFPs (US $23,000 ha⁻¹) can be comparable to tea plantations. By managing for NTFPs and timber, forest managers have new opportunities to solve the old problems of high-grading and land-use conversion.     

Productivity of kayu putih (Melaleuca leucadendron LINN) tree plantation managed in non-timber forest production systems in Java,Indonesia

Kayu putih oil, extracted from the kayu putih tree (Melaleuca leucadendron), is an important non-timber forest product (NTFP) in Indonesia. We compared productivity of kayu putih tree plantations among three different sites in East, Central, and West Java, Indonesia. Leaf-twig, and branch production per tree differed significantly among the three sites. Tree biomass production was highest at the site in West Java practicing tumpangsari (a form of shifting cultivation) of kayu putih with rice (Oryza sativa) on alluvial soils. Tree biomass production was lowest at the site in East Java, practicing tumpangsari of kayu putih with maize (Zea mays) and cassava (Mani- hot esculenta). At this site, tree biomass production increased with increasing stand age and low production was compensated by greater biomass yield of companion crops. Intermediate tree biomass production was observed at the site in Central Java where intercropping is only practiced for the first two years after plantation establishment. Production of tree biomass and kayu putih oil did not increase with increasing stand density, indicating that at a given site, high tree stocking did not lead to high production. Stand-level productivity of the plantations increased with increasing stand age and maximum productivity was attained at 15 to 35 years, after which productivity declined. This suggested unsustainable stand productivity as plantations increase in age.     

Sustainable production of non-timber forest products: Natural dye extraction from El Cruce Dos Aguadas,Petén,Guatemala

The traditional harvest of non-timber forest products (NTFP) in Petén, Guatemala, provides a model for integrated conservation and development programs. Conservation International and El Cruce a Dos Aguadas (El Cruce). and agricultural community in the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Northern Petén, have created a new NTFP, called Gatherings™ which is a potpourri composed of seeds, flowers and leaves. Gatherings™ is promoted on international and domestic markets as a sustainably extracted natural product whose sale provides a direct incentive for local producers to conserve their forests. The purpose of this investigation is to test the ecological sustainability of extraction of the natural dyes used to color the potpourri ingredients and to present the following eight-step method for testing the sustainability of NTFP harvesting: (1) delineate current supply area; (2) determine current supply; (3) estimate the growth and yield of target species; (4) determine the current demand; (5) compare short-term supply and demand and evaluate management options: (6) assess secondary ecological effects of harvesting; (7) repeat the process for future time periods; and (8) summarize the analysis. Using this method, we found that two of the dyes are likely to be over-harvested within 10 years, and that the harvest of the third could be increased substantially without endangering the dye-producing species. When we summarized the analysis, we found no evidence to conclude that the current production of Gatherings™ directly benefits the forests of El Cruce. However, the goodwill created by this project has contributed to a new conservation initiative; a Land Management Area which has been proposed by the community to Guatemala's National Protected Areas Council (CONAP) and which contains a 13 273 ha forest reserve.     

Changing Consumption and Marketing pattern of Non-timber Forest Products in a Competitive World: case Study from an Urban Area of North-eastern Bangladesh

In the last decade non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and their associated goods have received much attention from researchers and development workers for their perceived socio-economic importance and potential, particularly in developing countries. It has been increasingly recognized that promoting the use, production and sustainable harvesting of such kinds of products could also contribute to forest conservation in the long run. However, since the development process has progressed in most regions, alternatives or substitutes of such products have become available on the markets, and it will be difficult for these nature-based products to exist without additional product values. A market survey was conducted in an urban fringe of north-eastern Bangladesh to investigate NTFP-based product diversity, and marketing patterns and challenges. Further information was collected from sellers and consumers to understand their views on probable future strategies to sustain the markets of these products. A total of 38 NTFP and NTFP-based secondary products were recorded from 25 NTFP shops, including 16 permanent, 7 temporary (or semi-permanent) and 2 mobile shops. The greatest demand was observed for bamboo and cane-based products, for which supply suffered due to the scarcity of raw materials. A decreasing trend in the consumption of NTFP-based articles for urban domestic use was also reported from the sellers. To cope with the competitive markets, sellers were found to place more emphasis on creative marketing, durability and appearance of their products. The study concluded that active government support is needed for the sustenance of this industry in a changing global perspective. This could be in the form of technical advancement in the production process, improvement of existing product supply chains and skill development of the workers which will not only secure the future of these products but also provide an essential means for the survival of this industry and for thousands of people living from it.     

Options for Non-Timber Forest Product Management in the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

This paper describes and evaluates the current role that non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and their users play on the conservation of the four protected areas-Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, and Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo Galeras-that comprise the Condor Bioreserve. The category non-timber forest product (also referred to as non-wood forest product) encompasses a myriad of resources that reside in forests and can be useful to people. Plants from which NTFPs are derived play essential roles in tropical forest ecosystem processes such as regeneration and nutrient cycling. In the Condor Bioreserve, certain species of such plants are commercially valuable while others are endangered. People are extracting these NTFPs from the Bioreserve, yet the magnitude and frequency of such extraction is unknown. This paper examines how the three groups of land users that have been identified by The Nature Conservancy-colonists, indigenous peoples, and hacienda owners-may utilize NTFPs. Understanding the role that these plants play in the lives of its collectors is imperative for designing effective strategies to alleviate pressure that extraction may place on the Condor Bioreserve ecosystems. Data on who harvests NTFPs, which plant parts they use, what quantities they harvest, and harvest frequency must be complemented by insight into how each group benefits from these activities. Moreover, an unbiased approach must examine how NTFP extraction may enhance certain ecosystems in addition to ways in which it may hurt Bioreserve resource ecosystems.     

Participatory Research for Adaptive Ecosystem Management

Summary

Participatory research involves members of interested communities who work with researchers to apply their joint skills and experience to explore issues of mutual concern. There is an increasingly explicit federal mandate for participatory research efforts involving stakeholder groups in public land management. This paper presents a case study of one effort ongoing in the Hayfork Adaptive Management Area (AMA) on the Six Rivers and Shasta-Trinity national forests of northern California. There, a network of U.S. Forest Service staff, scientists, local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and nontimber forest product harvesters (wildcrafters) has been working to address ecological, economic, and social aspects of harvesting nontimber forest products (NTFP) from public land. This paper discusses the challenges of NTFP management on public lands and analyzes participatory research as an approach for addressing some of these challenges.     

林茶复合经营研究与应用

本文系统地总结了林茶复合经营技术的历史沿革、3种应用类型及经营技术、科学研究成果和研究现状, 并就间作茶园树种选择原则、系统结构优化及生态学机理等研究领域提出了新的研究方向。     

金平县林产业发展探讨

金平县2007年林业产值为1．91亿元，占全县农业总产值的35％，是林业重点县．该县具有发展林产业的优势项目，包括橡胶种植业、竹藤产业、木本油料（油荼）业、核桃特色经济林产业、杉木珍贵用材林产业以及草果林下资源开发等．分析了林产业发展的有利和不利因素．进行了产业发展规划和布局．提出加快集体林权制度改革、加大资金投入、加强科技支撑、扶持龙头企业、组建专业合作组织等保障措施．     

The Non-Timber Forest Products Sector in Nepal: Emerging Policy Issues in Plant Conservation and Utilization for Sustainable Development

The non-timber forest products (NTFPs) sector in Nepal is being promoted with the concept of sustainable development as articulated by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Traditionally, people have been dependent on NTFPs for subsistence; however, international trade is growing. To promote this sector, Nepal adopted the 2004 Herbs and NTFP Development Policy. Our goal is to assess the effectiveness of the policy along with the other forestry and natural resource policies in Nepal concerning the conservation and use of NTFPs. We conducted open-ended semi-structured interviews with 28 key informants in summer 2006 in Nepal and collected relevant documents and publications. Qualitative analyses of data yielded important issues that should be addressed to promote the sector as envisioned by the Government. The most important is the need for inventory and research on NTFP species in widespread use. There are some issues regarding species banned under various other National Acts; the lack of marketing information and capacity building; administrative barriers; royalty rates; and illegal harvesting. The most important immediate need is the development of an NTFP Strategy and Action Plan. Our findings should help further implement the policy and promote the sector along the stated mission of conservation and sustainable development.     

Damage to Brazil nut trees (Bertholletia excelsa) during selective timber harvesting in Northern Bolivia

The success of multiple forest management systems is contingent on a variety of social, economic, biophysical, and institutional factors, including the integration of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction and management. Selective logging for timber is increasingly taking place in forests where the collection of Brazil nuts, a high-value Amazonian NTFP, also occurs. We report on logging damage to Brazil nut trees in three certified timber concessions in Northern Bolivia from which timber is harvested using reduced-impact logging (RIL) guidelines and nuts are gathered yearly from the ground by local people. Observed frequencies of logging damage to Brazil nut trees were low, likely mirroring the low intensity of timber harvesting (∼0.5 trees/ha and ∼5 m³/ha) being currently applied across the study area. Of the trees ≥10 cm in diameter at breast height about 0.1 Brazil nut trees and 0.4 timber species per hectare suffered some degree of logging damage. Crown loss was the predominant damage type for Brazil nut trees accounting for 50% of all damage. In spite of the observed low rates of tree damage, we further recommend that RIL guidelines be amended to include the pre-harvest marking of pre-reproductive Brazil nut trees along with the future crop trees of commercial timber species. Further refining directional felling to reduce crown damage to Brazil nut trees would also serve to help maintain nut yields in the long term.     

NTFP income contribution to household economy and related socio-economic factors: Lessons from Bangladesh

Exploring extent and pattern of non-timber forest product (NTFP) income contribution to livelihoods of forest-adjacent people and the income related socio-economic factors is crucial in designing any development and conservation initiative. This paper examines NTFPs' role in contributing to the household economy and how different socio-economic factors may influence this contribution. Field methods involved quantitative and qualitative data collection of forest-adjacent households of Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh. Results show that the contribution of different types of NTFPs to household economy varies in terms of subsistence and cash income. However, overall NTFP income is much higher than income from timber or firewood which indicates a larger dependence of the households on NTFPs. Income data analysis also finds that the poor households are relatively more dependent on NTFPs for their subsistence and cash income than the better-off households. Moreover, the study reveals that there are many other socio-economic factors at the household level such as number of members in household and total value of household implements and furniture that are significantly correlated with the NTFP income. More site-specific applied research on NTFP income and influential factors is necessary to generalize the findings for other parts of the world with similar socio-economic and environmental settings.     

Why Is Non-Timber Forest Product Harvesting an “Issue”?

Summary

Despite an encouraging trend in North America of growing interest across a range of disciplines in non-timber forest products (e.g., this volume), NTFP harvesters' knowledge and practices continue to be poorly understood and undervalued, if not ignored, both by research scientists and forestland policy-makers and managers. This article explores why NTFP harvesting suddenly emerged in North America as an “issue” in the early 1990s. Drawing from a three-year study of chanterelle mushroom harvesters on the Olympic Peninsula Biosphere Reserve (Washington, USA), we discuss a variety of forces which intersected in this period to bring NTFP harvesting to wider attention. Unfortunately, harvesters continue to be excluded as knowledgeable actors in, if not legitimate co-managers of, temperate forest ecosystems, resulting in both passive and active harvester resistance to research and management, a devaluing of local harvesting traditions, and missed opportunities for collaboration. We reluctantly conclude that despite “New Forestry” co-management rhetoric, given existing institutional barriers and positivist scientific categories, NTFP workers will likely remain excluded from active roles in temperate forest research and management-contributing in turn to the ongoing legitimacy crisis of public and private forest management entities.     

Measuring Marketing Channel Efficiency and Strategy to Improve Income to Local Communities Dependent on Tropical Forests

Abstract

Quantification of channel efficiency in the marketing of non-timber forest products (NTFP) is essential for developing strategies to improve income to communities dependent on forests at existing harvest levels. A methodology for quantification of marketing channel efficiency is suggested. For illustrative purposes the method has been applied to a small sample of four NTFP gathered in twelve villages and the associated market functionaries in India. The NTFP gatherers' share in the consumer price and profit earned by a manufacturing unit from NTFP has been estimated. An attempt has been made to relate these two estimates to the marketing channel efficiency for the NTFP. An analysis of the marketing channel efficiency formulation shows that the operation cost in an organization is a constraint limiting the gatherers' share in the consumer price.     

Ecological, socio-cultural, economic and political factors influencing the contribution of non-timber forest products to local livelihoods: Case studies from honduras and the Philippines

Discussion of the role of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in efforts to reconcile the objectives of forest conservation and rural development has often been hampered by limited understanding of the complexity of the factors that affect the contribution of NTFPs to local livelihoods. By drawing upon two case studies where NTFPs play an important role - the municipality of Lepaterique in Honduras and Palawan Island in the Philippines - this study emphasizes that an ideal extractive system should be based on a mix of products to enable sustainable harvesting throughout the year. The study also demonstrates that considerable attention needs to be paid to the socio-cultural heterogeneity of resource users, and to the value chain structure, access and control over resources and political transparency that affect the opportunities for local people to benefit from NTFP extraction.