The cardiopulmonary effects and quality of anesthesia after induction with alfaxalone in 2‐hydroxypropyl‐β‐cyclodextrin in dogs and cats: a systematic review

To systematically review the quality of evidence comparing the cardiopulmonary effects and quality of anesthesia after induction with alfaxalone vs. other anesthetic agents in dogs and cats. Studies published from 2001 until 20th May 2013 were identified with the terms ‘alfaxan’ OR ‘alfaxalone’ OR ‘alphaxalone’ in electronic databases: Discovery, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Wiley Interscience. The study design and risk of bias of all included studies were assessed. Twenty‐two studies from 408 (22 of 408, 5.39%) satisfied the inclusion criteria. Fourteen studies (14 of 22, 64%) focused on dogs and nine (9 of 22, 40%) on cats. One study had both dogs and cats as subjects. (Hunt et al., 2013) Twelve studies were rated an LOE1, and six of these as ROB1. One, seven, and two studies were rated as LOE2, LOE3, and LOE5, respectively. In dogs, strong evidence shows that induction quality with either alfaxalone‐HPCD or propofol is smooth. Moderate evidence supports this finding in cats. In dogs, moderate evidence shows that there is no significant change in heart rate after induction with either alfaxalone‐HPCD or propofol. In cats, moderate evidence shows no significant difference in postinduction respiratory rate and heart rate between alfaxalone‐HPCD and propofol induction. Strong evidence shows dogs and cats have smooth recoveries after induction using either alfaxalone‐HPCD or propofol, before reaching sternal recumbency.     

Evaluation of environmental risk factors for leptospirosis in dogs: 36 cases (1997-2002)

OBJECTIVE: To identify environmental risk factors for leptospirosis. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 36 dogs with leptospirosis and 138 dogs seronegative for leptospirosis as determined by microscopic agglutination test for antibodies against Leptospira spp. PROCEDURES: Medical records of dogs evaluated for leptospirosis from 1997 though 2002 were identified. Owner address was used to geocode locations of dogs, and location-specific environmental risk factor data were obtained by use of a geographic information system. Risk of leptospirosis was estimated by odds ratios, controlling for potential confounding by dog age, sex, and breed. RESULTS: Leptospirosis in 19 of the 30 dogs in which an infecting Leptospira serovar could be identified was associated with Leptospira kirschneri serovar grippotyphosa infection. Dogs in which a diagnosis of leptospirosis was made, and dogs with leptospirosis caused by L kirschneri serovar grippotyphosa, were more likely to have addresses located in areas classified as rural in 1990 but urban in 2000. By use of information on recent urbanization and a logistic regression model, the status of 81.6% and 89.8% of dogs with leptospirosis and leptospirosis caused by serovar grippotyphosa, respectively, were correctly classified. Other environmental variables (proximity to streams, recreational areas, farmland, wetlands, areas subject to flooding, and areas with poor drainage; annual rainfall; and county cattle or pig population) did not significantly improve accuracy of classification. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Dogs in periurban areas are at greater risk of leptospirosis. Vaccination of dogs in these areas to protect against leptospirosis should be considered.     

Neighborhood-level socioeconomic and urban land use risk factors of canine leptospirosis: 94 cases (2002-2009)

Associations of housing, population, and agriculture census variables, and presence near public places were retrospectively evaluated as potential risk factors for canine leptospirosis using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The sample population included 94 dogs positive for leptospirosis based on a positive polymerase chain reaction test for leptospires on urine, isolation of leptospires on urine culture, a single reciprocal serum titer of 12,800 or greater, or a four-fold rise in reciprocal serum titers over a 2-4 week period; and 185 dogs negative for leptospirosis based on a negative polymerase chain reaction test and reciprocal serum titers less than 400. Multivariable logistic regressions revealed different risk factors among different census units; however, houses lacking complete plumbing facilities [OR=2.80, 95% C.I.=1.82, 4.32 (census unit, block group); OR=1.36, 95% C.I.=1.28, 1.45 (census tract); OR=3.02, 95% C.I.=2.60, 3.52 (county)]; and poverty status by age (18-64) [OR=2.04, 95% C.I.=1.74, 2.39 (block group); OR=1.53, 95% C.I.=1.41, 1.67 (census tract); and OR=1.62, 95% C.I.=1.50, 1.76 (county)] were consistent risk factors for all census units. Living within 2500m of a university/college and parks/forests were also significantly associated with leptospirosis status in dogs. Dogs that live under these circumstances are at higher risk for leptospirosis and pet owners should consider vaccination.     

Evaluations of land cover risk factors for canine leptospirosis: 94 cases (2002-2009)

Associations of land cover/land use variables and the presence of dogs in urban vs. rural address locations were evaluated retrospectively as potential risk factors for canine leptospirosis in Kansas and Nebraska using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The sample included 94 dogs positive for leptospirosis predominantly based on a positive polymerase chain reaction test for leptospires in urine, isolation of leptospires on urine culture, a single reciprocal serum titer of 12,800 or greater, or a four-fold rise in reciprocal serum titers over a 2-4 weeks period; and 185 dogs negative for leptospirosis based on a negative polymerase chain reaction test and reciprocal serum titers less than 400. Land cover features from 2001 National Land Cover Dataset and 2001 Kansas Gap Analysis Program datasets around geocoded addresses of case/control locations were extracted using 2500m buffers, and the presence of dogs' address locations within urban vs. rural areas were estimated in GIS. Multivariate logistic models were used to determine the risk of different land cover variables and address locations to dogs. Medium intensity urban areas (OR=1.805, 95% C.I.=1.396, 2.334), urban areas in general (OR=2.021, 95% C.I.=1.360, 3.003), and having urban address locations (OR=3.732, 95% C.I.=1.935, 7.196 entire study region), were significant risk factors for canine leptospirosis. Dogs regardless of age, sex and breed that live in urban areas are at higher risk of leptospirosis and vaccination should be considered.     

Risk factors for nuisance barking in dogs

Objective   To determine the key variables related to the environment, animal and owner that influence nuisance barking by dogs in a city with a subtropical climate.
Design and Population   A case–control survey of dog owners in Brisbane, Queensland, was conducted using a questionnaire investigating key variables connected to nuisance barking. Owners of dogs exhibiting nuisance barking were obtained from a list of dogs being treated in a Brisbane behaviour clinic, and those of control dogs were selected from a telephone directory.
Results   Univariate analysis showed that animal, owner and environmental factors all potentially influence the occurrence of nuisance barking. Multivariate analysis identified the following factors, with the relevant odds ratios (OR) as significant: age of the dog (young dog vs old dog, OR 11.2); multiple dogs in the household vs single (OR 5.6); origin of the dog (home bred vs obtained from breeder or friend, OR 4.0); type of dog, (herding vs other types, OR 3.2) and dog with access to the home vs dog without access (OR 2.5).
Conclusion   The greatest risk for nuisance barking occurs with a young dog of the herding type that is home bred and with access to the house in a multiple dog household.     

Risk factors for canine leishmaniasis in an endemic Mediterranean region

Human visceral leishmaniasis is an emergent/re-emergent parasitic zoonotic disease in Europe caused by Leishmania infantum, with domestic dog as its main reservoir host. This study presents the results of a canine epidemiological survey in a mediterranean region where human and canine leishmaniasis (CanL) are endemic - Portugal. The main goal was to identify risk factors, which can be relevant for Leishmania infection control. The national survey was carried out in January 2009 with a screening of 3974 dogs from all 18 districts of mainland Portugal. Direct Agglutination Test was used for the detection of anti-Leishmania antibodies in canine blood. An overall CanL true prevalence of 6.31% was observed. Apparent prevalence at district level ranged from 0.88% to 16.16%, with the highest prevalence in the interior regions. Identified risk factors for positivity were: dogs of 2 years and older (adjusted odds ratio OR=5.39); spending exclusively/most of the time outdoors (OR=2.51); origin from the interior of Portugal in comparison to littoral/coast districts (OR=2.51); not having long fur (OR=2.03); and being pure exotic (OR=1.67). The results confirm the leishmaniasis endemicity in Portugal and the dynamic character of prevalence as new foci emerged and old foci lost their importance. The dog's age, fur size, district and living outdoors as opposed to indoors were more important than dog breeds and insecticide treatment in the transmission of Leishmania infection. The future of CanL prevention and control rely on an integrated approach involving veterinarians, dog owners and health authorities in order to reduce the canine infection risk and consequently, the human zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis.     

Cross-sectional study of canine leptospirosis in animal shelter populations in mainland Australia

OBJECTIVE: To measure the prevalence of canine leptospirosis in Queensland and to detect infection, if present, in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and the Northern Territory by measuring the serological titres of dogs held in animal shelters. PROCEDURE: Samples were collected through stratified sampling from multiple dog shelters in Queensland and New South Wales, and from one dog shelter located in close proximity to a major urban area in Victoria, South Australia, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. All samples were analysed using the microscopic agglutination test at the WHO/FAO/OIE Collaborating Centre for Reference & Research on Leptospirosis, Queensland Health Scientific Services in Brisbane, Queensland. RESULTS: Of a total of 956 samples submitted, 18 (1.9%) had positive leptospirosis titres. True prevalence measured in Queensland was estimated to be 2.5%, and the true prevalence in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and the Northern Territory was estimated to be 2.3%, 2.8%, 0%, 1% and 1.1% respectively. An association was found between seropositive status and female dogs (odds ratio (OR) 1.92) and seropositive status and the age group 1 to < 3 years (OR 1.41). Although 11 different serovars were detected, Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni was the most prevalent and was found in 4 of the 18 positive dogs as a single infection. CONCLUSION: Serological evidence of canine leptospirosis in five states in mainland Australia indicates that the disease is more broadly distributed than previously thought.     

Serovar-specific prevalence and risk factors for leptospirosis among dogs: 90 cases (1997-2002)

OBJECTIVE: To estimate serovar-specific prevalence of leptospirosis by use of veterinary teaching hospital and laboratory submission data; describe annual and seasonal patterns of leptospirosis; and identify risk factors for age, sex, and breed. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 90 dogs with leptospirosis. PROCEDURES: Hospital records of dogs examined at Purdue University Veterinary Teaching Hospital with a diagnosis of leptospirosis and laboratory records of dogs from which sera were tested for antibodies against Leptospira spp at Purdue University Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory from 1997 through 2002 were reviewed. The likely infecting Leptospira serovar was identified. Seasonal and annual prevalences were calculated by use of hospital population at risk (hospital cases) or serologic testing submissions (diagnostic laboratory cases). Age-, sex-, and breed-specific risk factors for hospital cases were estimated by odds ratios. RESULTS: Of the 39 hospitalized dogs identified, 34 had been serologically tested, and 22 of those were infected with Leptospira kirschneri serovar grippotyphosa. Of the 51 diagnostic laboratory cases, 59% had a reciprocal titer > or = 800 against serovar grippotyphosa. Diagnostic laboratory cases were more common in summer, whereas hospital cases of leptospirosis were more common in fall. Male dogs were at significantly greater risk of leptospirosis than female dogs; and dogs 4 to 6.9 years old were at significantly greater risk than dogs < 1 year old. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: L kirschneri serovar grippotyphosa infection was associated with most cases of leptospirosis in dogs. Use of an effective vaccine that includes this serovar is advisable for dogs at risk of leptospirosis.     

Leptospira interrogans serovar bratislava infection in two dogs

Two dogs with clinical histories suggestive of leptospirosis were examined serologically and culturally for evidence of leptospiral infection. Antibodies to Leptospira interrogans serovar bratislava were detected in serum from one dog, and the organism was isolated from urine of that dog. In a serologic survey of dogs in the state of Illinois, reactor rates to bratislava were higher than those to canicola or icterohaemorrhagiae. In cases of suspect canine leptospirosis, serovars such as bratislava, not contained in canine vaccines, should be considered in a differential diagnosis.     

Generalized calcinosis cutis associated with disseminated paecilomycosis in a dog

A 4‐year‐old spayed female mixed breed dog was referred to the Michigan State University, Veterinary Teaching Hospital (MSU‐VTH) with vomiting, lethargy and anorexia of 2 weeks duration. Abdominal radiographs and ultrasonography showed hepatosplenomegaly. Cytological evaluation of ultrasound‐guided fine needle aspirates of the liver and spleen revealed fungal organisms and pyogranulomatous inflammation; fungal culture documented Paecilomyces variotii infection. The dog received antifungal therapy and supportive care. Multiple firm plaque‐like skin lesions, predominantly involving the inguinal region, developed 18 days after initial presentation and were diagnosed histopathologically as calcinosis cutis. While generalized calcinosis cutis has been reported in three dogs with blastomycosis and one dog with leptospirosis, the association with disseminated Paecilomyces spp. infection is novel.     

A Cross‐Sectional Study Examining the Prevalence and Risk Factors for Anti‐Microbial‐Resistant Generic Escherichia coli in Domestic Dogs that Frequent Dog Parks in Three Cities in South‐Western Ontario,Canada

Anti‐microbial resistance can threaten health by limiting treatment options and increasing the risk of hospitalization and severity of infection. Companion animals can shed anti‐microbial‐resistant bacteria that may result in the exposure of other dogs and humans to anti‐microbial‐resistant genes. The prevalence of anti‐microbial‐resistant generic Escherichia coli in the faeces of dogs that visited dog parks in south‐western Ontario was examined and risk factors for shedding anti‐microbial‐resistant generic E. coli identified. From May to August 2009, canine faecal samples were collected at ten dog parks in three cities in south‐western Ontario, Canada. Owners completed a questionnaire related to pet characteristics and management factors including recent treatment with antibiotics. Faecal samples were collected from 251 dogs, and 189 surveys were completed. Generic E. coli was isolated from 237 of the faecal samples, and up to three isolates per sample were tested for anti‐microbial susceptibility. Eighty‐nine percent of isolates were pan‐susceptible; 82.3% of dogs shed isolates that were pan‐susceptible. Multiclass resistance was detected in 7.2% of the isolates from 10.1% of the dogs. Based on multilevel multivariable logistic regression, a risk factor for the shedding of generic E. coli resistant to ampicillin was attending dog day care. Risk factors for the shedding of E. coli resistant to at least one anti‐microbial included attending dog day care and being a large mixed breed dog, whereas consumption of commercial dry and home cooked diets was protective factor. In a multilevel multivariable model for the shedding of multiclass‐resistant E. coli, exposure to compost and being a large mixed breed dog were risk factors, while consumption of a commercial dry diet was a sparing factor. Pet dogs are a potential reservoir of anti‐microbial‐resistant generic E. coli; some dog characteristics and management factors are associated with the prevalence of anti‐microbial‐resistant generic E. coli in dogs.     

Spatial epidemiological approaches to inform leptospirosis surveillance and control: A systematic review and critical appraisal of methods

Leptospirosis is a global zoonotic disease that the transmission is driven by complex geographical and temporal variation in demographics, animal hosts and socioecological factors. This results in complex challenges for the identification of high‐risk areas. Spatial and temporal epidemiological tools could be used to support leptospirosis control programs, but the adequacy of its application has not been evaluated. We searched literature in six databases including PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, Scopus, SciELO and Zoological Record to systematically review and critically assess the use of spatial and temporal analytical tools for leptospirosis and to provide general framework for its application in future studies. We reviewed 115 articles published between 1930 and October 2018 from 41 different countries. Of these, 65 (56.52%) articles were on human leptospirosis, 39 (33.91%) on animal leptospirosis and 11 (9.5%) used data from both human and animal leptospirosis. Spatial analytical (n = 106) tools were used to describe the distribution of incidence/prevalence at various geographical scales (96.5%) and to explored spatial patterns to detect clustering and hot spots (33%). A total of 51 studies modelled the relationships of various variables on the risk of human (n = 31), animal (n = 17) and both human and animal infection (n = 3). Among those modelling studies, few studies had generated spatially structured models and predictive maps of human (n = 2/31) and animal leptospirosis (n = 1/17). In addition, nine studies applied time‐series analytical tools to predict leptospirosis incidence. Spatial and temporal analytical tools have been greatly utilized to improve our understanding on leptospirosis epidemiology. Yet the quality of the epidemiological data, the selection of covariates and spatial analytical techniques should be carefully considered in future studies to improve usefulness of evidence as tools to support leptospirosis control. A general framework for the application of spatial analytical tools for leptospirosis was proposed.     

Sero‐epidemiology of Canine Leptospirosis in Trinidad: Serovars,Implications for Vaccination and Public Health

A sero‐epidemiological study on canine leptospirosis was conducted in house, stray, farm and hunting dogs, as well as in suspect cases of clinical canine leptospirosis. Serum samples were collected from apparently healthy (vaccinated and non‐vaccinated), house dogs. A questionnaire was administered to the owners to elicit information on risk factors for leptospirosis. The microscopic agglutination test was used to screen for leptospirosis using 17 international serovars. Reciprocal titres of between 100 and <800 were considered as evidence of past exposure while reciprocal titres of 800 or greater were classified as suggestive of acute/current infection. Of a total of 419 serum samples tested, 61 (14.6%) were seropositive for Leptospira agglutinins, 23 (5.5%) had mixed infections and 16 (3.8%) had current infection. Amongst 50 suspected cases of clinical leptospirosis, 24 (48.0%) were seropositive and only 13 (26.0%) had current infection compared with 10 (6.3%) and three (1.9%) of 160 apparently healthy house dogs respectively. The difference was statistically significant (P < 0.05; χ²). Twelve (25.5%) of 47 hunting dogs, 10 (20.4%) of 49 farm dogs and five (4.4%) of 113 stray dogs were seropositive (P < 0.05; χ²). Overall, a total of nine serovars were detected with serovars mankarso, icterohaemorrhagiae RGA, autumnalis and copenhageni being involved in 29 (47.5%), 20 (32.8%), 25 (41.0%) and 10 (16.4%) respectively in 61 seropositive dogs (P < 0.05; χ²). Serovar mankarso was most predominant in seropositive apparently healthy dogs, 37.8% (14/37), suspected clinical cases of leptospirosis, 62.5% (15/24) compared with serovar icterohaemorrhagiae with a frequency of 21.6% (8/37) and 50.0% (12/24), the difference being statistically significant (P < 0.05; χ²). Although all vaccines used for prevention of canine leptospirosis in the country contain serovars canicola and icterohaemorrhagiae, serovar mankarso was mostly associated with infection and disease and may be a good candidate for inclusion in the vaccine used locally. The public health risk posed to owners of dogs infected with Leptospira cannot be over‐emphasized considering the zoonotic nature of the disease.     

A longitudinal study on diarrhoea and vomiting in young dogs of four large breeds

Background

Prospective studies to document the occurrence of canine diarrhoea and vomiting are relatively scarce in dogs, and the majority of published studies are based on information from clinical records. This study investigates the incidence risk of diarrhoea and vomiting as well as potential risk factors.

Methods

A cohort study of 585 privately owned dogs of four breeds: Newfoundland, Labrador retriever, Leonberger, and Irish wolfhound. The owners maintained a continuous log regarding housing, exercise, nutrition, and health of their dogs. Episodes of diarrhoea and vomiting were recorded in a consecutive manner in a booklet. The owners completed the questionnaires and reported information at three, four, six, 12, 18, and 24/25 months of age, called observational ages.Associations with potential risk factors for diarrhoea and vomiting were investigated in separate generalized estimating equation analyses.

Results

The incidence of both diarrhoea and vomiting was influenced by breed. Both diarrhoea and vomiting were relatively common in young dogs, occurring most frequently during the first months of life. After three months of age, the odds of diarrhoea were significantly lower when compared to the observational period seven weeks to three months (OR ranging from 0.31 to 0.70 depending on the period). More males than females suffered from diarrhoea (OR = 1.42). The occurrence of diarrhoea was more common in dogs that also experienced episode(s) of vomiting during the study period (OR = 5.43) and vice versa (OR = 5.50). In the majority of dogs episodes of diarrhoea and vomiting did not occur at the same time. Dogs in urban areas had higher odds (OR = 1.88) of getting diarrhoea compared to dogs living in rural areas. The occurrence of both diarrhoea and vomiting demonstrated a seasonal variation with higher incidence during the summer months.

Conclusion

Both diarrhoea and vomiting occurred most frequently during the first months of life. The incidence of diarrhoea and vomiting was significantly different between breeds. Diarrhoea occurred more frequently in males and in dogs living in urban areas. Also, a positive association between the occurrence of diarrhoea and vomiting in the same dog was found.     

Increase in seroprevalence of canine leptospirosis and its risk factors,Ontario 1998–2006

Canine leptospirosis has been described as having re-emerged in North America around the mid-1990s, with a change in the epidemiology of the infecting serovars responsible for the disease emergence. A retrospective case-control study was conducted to examine the re-emergence of seroprevalent cases of canine leptospirosis in Ontario using serology submission records from 1406 dogs from January 1, 1998 to December 31, 2006. The data collected [results of the microscopic agglutination test (MAT), veterinary clinic postal code, age, sex, neutering status, and breed] were analyzed by multivariable logistic regression, generalized linear mixed modeling, and Cochran-Armitage test for trends in proportions. Dogs in urban areas appeared to be at significantly higher risk than dogs in rural areas for the entire study period [odds ratio (OR) = 1.6, confidence interval (CI) = 1.2–2.3], though this was not as marked as in other studies. Results indicated that canine leptospirosis in Ontario is a disease of all breeds and ages, regardless of gender. No geographic clustering was noted, but clustering of cases by clinic within geographic areas suggested differences in awareness or in diagnosis by veterinarians. A distinctive seasonal pattern of leptospirosis, with more cases occurring during the summer and fall, as found in previous studies, was also observed in this study. The temporal trend analysis was consistent with an increasing proportion or re-emergence of seroprevalent cases of canine leptospirosis since 1998, suggesting that the putative increase in canine leptospirosis has been genuine.     

Prevalence of and risk factors for leptospirosis among dogs in the United States and Canada: 677 cases (1970-1998)

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether there was a temporal trend in prevalence of leptospirosis among dogs in the United States and Canada and to determine whether age, sex, and breed were risk factors for the disease. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 1,819,792 dogs examined at 22 veterinary teaching hospitals between 1970 and 1998. PROCEDURES: The Veterinary Medical Data Base was searched for records of dogs in which a diagnosis of leptospirosis was made, and hospital prevalence was calculated. Logistic regression was used to examine the association between leptospirosis and age, sex, and breed. RESULTS: 677 dogs with leptospirosis were identified. Thus, hospital prevalence was 37 cases/100,000 dogs examined. A significant increase in leptospirosis prevalence between 1983 and 1998 was identified. Male dogs were at significantly greater risk of leptospirosis than were female dogs; dogs between 4 and 6.9 years old and between 7 and 10 years old were at significantly greater risk than dogs < 1 year old; and herding dogs, hounds, working dogs, and mixed-breed dogs were at significantly greater risk than companion dogs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The prevalence of leptospirosis among dogs examined at veterinary teaching hospitals in the United States and Canada has increased significantly since 1983. Male dogs of working and herding breeds were at greater risk.     

A systematic review of the effects of injectable sedative and anesthetic drugs and inhalant anesthetics on intraocular pressure in the dog

ObjectiveThe purpose of this systematic review was to summarize the results of studies that have determined the effect of injectable and inhalant drugs used in anesthesia on intraocular pressure (IOP) in dogs.Databases usedA comprehensive search of research literature was performed without language restriction. The search utilized the PubMed, CAB Abstracts and the University of Georgia’s Galileo electronic databases using a combination of free text terms ‘Ophthalmology’, ‘Intraocular Pressure’, ‘Anesthetic’, ‘Anesthesia’, ‘Canine’ or ‘Dog’. The time frame searched was from 1970 to October 2018. Any published research paper that dealt with sedatives or anesthetics administered systemically and the canine eye was evaluated.ConclusionsThe effects of many anesthetic drugs in dogs with ocular pathology are largely unknown. Many anesthetic drugs do not induce clinically relevant changes in IOP in dogs with normal eyes, although some studies demonstrated results with statistically significant changes. The dose, route of administration, experimental conditions, drug combinations, timing of measurements, measurement technology and setting or individual animal characteristics may all produce some heterogeneity in results from multiple studies.     

Despite high‐risk exposures,no evidence of zoonotic transmission during a canine outbreak of leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonosis that affects many mammals, including humans and dogs; dogs can transmit the bacteria to humans, but the frequency of transmission and highest risk exposures are poorly understood. During 2016–2017, the Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Arizona Department of Health Services and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention investigated the zoonotic potential of a canine leptospirosis outbreak in the Phoenix metro area. We identified symptomatic persons exposed to canine leptospirosis cases by conducting active and passive surveillance. We tested dog owners (n = 9) and animal care providers (n = 109) for serological evidence of Leptospira spp. infection (via the microscopic agglutination test [MAT]) and interviewed these persons about their specific exposures to canine cases and general exposures to canine blood and urine. Through surveillance, seven symptomatic persons were identified; six were tested and all were negative by MAT, and of these six, four persons were negative by PCR (two did not have PCR testing). All serosurvey participants (n = 118) were also seronegative. Among animal care providers, bare skin contact with urine/blood from a canine case was reported by 23.2%; two persons reported dog urine splashing in their face. Veterinary technicians were more likely to have bare skin contact with blood from a canine case compared to veterinarians and boarding facility staff (p < 0.001). Infection control practices were inconsistent; when working with specimens from a canine leptospirosis case, 44.6% of participants reported always wearing gloves when working with urine (i.e., collecting specimens), and 54.5% always wore gloves when working with blood. Veterinary technicians were also most likely to engage in all activities involving potential urine/blood contact, such as conducting laboratory tests (p < 0.01). We therefore recommend that veterinary technicians specifically receive targeted education about infection control practices. Our results suggest that dog‐to‐human transmission of leptospirosis is uncommon.     

Sero-epidemiology of canine leptospirosis in Trinidad: serovars, implications for vaccination and public health

A sero-epidemiological study on canine leptospirosis was conducted in house, stray, farm and hunting dogs, as well as in suspect cases of clinical canine leptospirosis. Serum samples were collected from apparently healthy (vaccinated and non-vaccinated), house dogs. A questionnaire was administered to the owners to elicit information on risk factors for leptospirosis. The microscopic agglutination test was used to screen for leptospirosis using 17 international serovars. Reciprocal titres of between 100 and <800 were considered as evidence of past exposure while reciprocal titres of 800 or greater were classified as suggestive of acute/current infection. Of a total of 419 serum samples tested, 61 (14.6%) were seropositive for Leptospira agglutinins, 23 (5.5%) had mixed infections and 16 (3.8%) had current infection. Amongst 50 suspected cases of clinical leptospirosis, 24 (48.0%) were seropositive and only 13 (26.0%) had current infection compared with 10 (6.3%) and three (1.9%) of 160 apparently healthy house dogs respectively. The difference was statistically significant (P < 0.05; chi2). Twelve (25.5%) of 47 hunting dogs, 10 (20.4%) of 49 farm dogs and five (4.4%) of 113 stray dogs were seropositive (P < 0.05; chi2). Overall, a total of nine serovars were detected with serovars mankarso, icterohaemorrhagiae RGA, autumnalis and copenhageni being involved in 29 (47.5%), 20 (32.8%), 25 (41.0%) and 10 (16.4%) respectively in 61 seropositive dogs (P < 0.05; chi2). Serovar mankarso was most predominant in seropositive apparently healthy dogs, 37.8% (14/37), suspected clinical cases of leptospirosis, 62.5% (15/24) compared with serovar icterohaemorrhagiae with a frequency of 21.6% (8/37) and 50.0% (12/24), the difference being statistically significant (P < 0.05; chi2). Although all vaccines used for prevention of canine leptospirosis in the country contain serovars canicola and icterohaemorrhagiae, serovar mankarso was mostly associated with infection and disease and may be a good candidate for inclusion in the vaccine used locally. The public health risk posed to owners of dogs infected with Leptospira cannot be over-emphasized considering the zoonotic nature of the disease.