The complete elimination of vicine and convicine from the faba beans by combinations of genetic selection and processing techniques

Out of sixty six faba bean (Vicia faba) cultivars and genotypes grown locally in Egypt and in Syria, the genotype 123 A/45/76 proved to be lowest in its vicine and convicine contents. Furthermore, soaking of this bean variety in 1% acetic acid at 40°C for 48 h resulted in reducing the total vicine and convicine contents of the beans by 90%. Home-made faba beans processing including soaking prior to cooking as in the case of bean cakes resulted in considerable reduction of the vicine and convicine contents by 56 and 34% respectively.     

Treatments for reducing total vicine in Egyptian faba bean (Giza 2 variety)

The response of faba bean Vicia faba (Giza 2 variety) towards soaking conditions differed greatly since the absorbed quantities of water (either by the whole or the decorticated forms) are a function of their chemical constituents. On the other hand, 28.45% of the total vicine (vicine + convicine) present in the whole faba bean samples was extracted after soaking for 72 h at room temperature. Subsequently, other soaking mediums, i.e., 0.5% sodium carbonate and/or 1% acetic acid were used in an attempt to increase the level of vicine elimination. Percentage removal of total vicine in whole faba bean was higher in the acidic (61.31%) than the alkaline (38.40%) medium under the conditions tested, i.e., at room temperature for 72 hours. The rates of vicine + convicine elimination in decorticated faba bean for the acidic acid and alkaline soaking media were 78.46 and 79.13%, respectively. The solubility ratio of total vicine relative to soaking solutions (H₂O:Na₂CO₃:Acetic acid) was 1:1.35:2.16 in the whole broad bean and 1:2.41:2.39 in the decorticated samples. The residual amounts of total vicine (78.33% and 77.27%) present after stewing under normal and under pressure cooking conditions could be expected to be decreased to 30.33% for the former and 29.92% for the later after 72 h of soaking. Regression analysis was used to estimate the theoretical zero point of vicine elimination from faba bean through soaking in 1% acetic acid.     

Chemical composition and content of antinutritional factors in Polish cultivars of peas

The seeds of 15 Polish pea varieties contained from 221 to 281 g/kg crude protein with a mean of 240.2±3.5 g/kg dry matter (DM). The weight of 1000 pea seeds, depending on cultivar, ranged from 209.4 to 280.4 g. No interactive effect between the seed mass and the crude protein content was detected. The highest significant negative correlation between weight of seeds and dietary fiber content wasr=−0.815^XX. The content of dietary fiber ranged from 161.5 to 209.9 g/kg with a mean of 187.9±3.8 g/kg. The mean gross energy of seeds was 18.1±0.28 MJ/kg. Amino acid composition of all the cultivars was similar, which was indicated by a similar index of essential amino acids (EAAI) of about 69.7±0.25. Trypsin inhibitor content in seeds was from 2.83 to 7.32 TIU/mg and the content of phytates ranged from 6.32 to 13.36 mg/g DM. The mean content of polyphenols and flavanols in analysed pea cultivars was 0.92 amd 0.46 mg/g, respectively. In the seeds of most cultivars little or no pyrimidine glucosides, i.e. vicine and convicine, were found. The overall mean oligosaccharide content was 64.3±1.8 g/kg, of which α-galactosides were 46.8±2.0 g/kg. The antinutritional factor content was not significantly correlated with protein content. No statistical relationship was found between crude protein and dietary fiber content. It was observed that pea cultivars with higher trypsin inhibitor activity contained significantly less flavanols (r=−0.607^X) and α-galactosides (r=−0.617^X). The varieties with higher seed content of dietary fiber contained the highest amount of α-galactosides (r=0.514^X).     

Nutritional value of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) seeds for feed and food

Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is a protein-rich legume seed well adapted to most climatic areas of Europe and widely used for feed and food. Even if the seed is generally recognized to be of good nutritional value, existing genetic variability for seed composition offers possibilities for improvement of this trait by breeding. Four major quality types must be distinguished according to the presence or absence of tannins in the integuments and of vicine (V) and convicine (C) in the cotyledons. The nutritional value of diets containing varying amounts of different faba bean cultivars characterized by high or low levels of tannins, and high or low levels of vicine + convicine (VC), has been examined in monogastric animals and ruminants. Low-tannin content generally results in higher protein and energy digestibility for monogastric animals and low VC content has a positive effect on laying hen and broiler production performances. V and C, inactive precursors of divicine and isouramil are redox compounds potentially toxic to human carriers of a widespread genetic deficiency of the erythrocyte (red blood cell, RBC) enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD). Ingestion of faba beans by these deficient individuals may cause a severe, potentially lethal hemolytic anemia (favism). The mechanism of action of divicine and isouramil in the G6PD-deficient RBC is discussed.     

Chemical composition and nutritional potential of the tribal pulse (Bauhinia malabarica Roxb)

Proximate and mineral composition, seed protein fractions, amino acid composition, fatty acid profiles and antinutritional factors were analysed for the seeds of the tribal pulse,Bauhinia malabarica. The seeds contained higher amount of crude lipid when compared with most of the domesticated pulses. The seeds were rich in minerals like Ca, Mg and Fe. Glutelins (45%) constituted the major seed protein fraction followed by globulins which accounted for about 34%. Cystine and methionine were found to be the limiting essential amino acids; whereas tyrosine and phenylalanine content were fairly high when compared with WHO requirement pattern. The unsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid and linoleic acid, were predominant in seed lipids. Presence of antinutritional substances like total free phenols, tannins, L-DOPA and haemagglutinating activity also were analysed/assayed.     

Chemical analysis and nutritional assessment of Teramnus labialis (L.) Spreng. (Fabaceae)

Seeds of Teramnus labialis (L.) Spreng.(Fabaceae), used as food by Malayali tribals in theKollihills of Salem District, Tamil Nadu in SouthIndia, were investigated for their nutritional value. These seeds were analyzed for proximate composition,total (true) seed proteins, seed proteinfractions, amino acid composition, fatty acidcomposition, minerals and antinutritional factors. Crude protein, crude fat, ash, and nitrogen freeextracts constituted 22.86%, 6.10%, 4.62%, and,58.15%, respectively, of the seed weight. The caloricvalue of 100 g dry matter of seed material was 378.94kcal. The essential amino acids lysine, leucine +isoleucine, arginine, valine and histidine werepresent in relatively large quantities. Theunsaturated fatty acids constituted more than 60% ofthe crude fat. Concentrations of minerals such aspotassium, magnesium, calcium, and, phosphorus werehigh. Antinutritional factors such as total freephenols, tannins, L-DOPA, hydrogen cyanide andphytic acid were present in minute quantities. Theseantinutritional factors are potentially eliminated using the conventional method of soaking the seeds in water,boiling with water and decanting prior to consumption.     

Chemical composition of the underutilized legume Cassia hirsuta L.

Seven accessions of the underutilized legume, Cassia hirsuta L., seeds collected from seven different agroclimatic regions of Tamil Nadu, India, were analyzed for proximate composition, total proteins, protein fractions, mineral profiles and selected antinutritional factors. Crude protein ranged from 15.52 to 20.74%, crude lipid 3.77–7.04%, crude fiber4.68–6.92%, ash 3.98–6.42% and carbohydrates 62.45–70.16%. Energyvalues of the seeds were 1549–1634 kJ/100 g (DM), which are comparable to those of other legumes. Data on seed protein fractions revealed thatglobulins constituted the bulk of the seed protein as in most legumes. Mineralcontents of the seeds showed greater variation. Potassium was the mostabundant mineral (1029–1786 mg/100 g), whereas manganese was low (2.1–2.2 mg/100 g). Antinutritional factors such as total free phenolics,tannins, L-DOPA and lectins were analyzed. The results of the studydemonstrated that the accessions of C. hirsuta seeds collectedfrom Tamil Nadu, India, could be good sources of some important nutrientsfor humans.     

Nutritional and chemical evaluation of raw seeds ofCanavalia gladiata (Jacq) DC. and C.ensiformis DC: The under utilized food and fodder crops in India

In India, the seeds ofCanavalia gladiata andC. ensiformis have traditionally been eaten by the aborigines, but they are less popular among the civilized people. The data on the chemical composition and nutritional quality of these seeds are not readily available. The proximate composition, mineral composition, the contents of total (true) proteins, seed protein fractions, profile of seed protein amino acids and certain antinutritional factors were analysed and reported in the present study. The seeds ofC. ensiformis contain more crude protein, crude lipid and minerals like Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe and Mn than doesC. gladiata. Both albumins and globulins together constitute the major bulk of seed proteins. In both the species ofCanavalia investigated, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, isoleucine+leucine, tyrosine+phenylalanine and lysine are the major amino acids of seed proteins. The presence of certain antinutritional factors (total free phenols, tannins, lectins, L-DOPA, trypsin inhibitor activity) is also reported for both species ofCanavalia.     

The saponins content of some Nigerian oil seeds

Three oil bearing seeds grown in Nigeria were found to contain saponins. The oil seeds, African oil bean seed (Pentaclethra macrophylla) rubber seed (Havea brasilienses), andMucuna uriens were defatted and saponin fractions extracted with 20% aqueous ethanol. Saponins obtained after extraction were 2.1% for African oil bean seed, 1.8% for rubber seed, and 2.1% forMucuna. These figures were similar to that of defatted soyabean with 2.4%. Results are discussed in relation to the possible beneficial or detrimental effects of saponins to man or animals that may consume these oil seeds.     

Chemical analysis and nutritional assessment of the less known pulses,Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal andVigna vexillata (L.) A. Rich.

The seeds ofVigna aconitifolia andVigna vexillata were analysed for proximate composition, minerals, seed protein fractions, amino acids, fatty acids, and antinutritional factors. Both the pulses were found to be rich sources of proteins and minerals like Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, and Mn.Vigna aconitifolia seeds exhibited fairly high levels of crude lipid. The most limiting essential amino acids in both the pulses were the sulphur-amino acids, cystine, and methionine. Threonine inV. aconitifolia and phenylalanine and tyrosine inV. vexillata occurred in higher quantities when compared with WHO/FAO requirement pattern. Oleic acid and palmitic acid inV. aconitifolia and linoleic acid and palmitic acid inV. vexillata lipids were found to be the predominant fatty acids. The tannin content of both the pulses was negligible compared with the domesticated legumes. The other antinutritional factors like total free phenols, L-DOPA and haemagglutinating activity were also analysed/assayed.     

Favism-inducing toxins in broad beans (Vicia faba): Estimation of the vicine contents of broad bean and other legume samples

A method for the estimation of vicine in leguminous seeds and related material has been developed. It involves the extraction and isolation of mixed pyrimidine bases, thin layer chromatography and spectrophotometry. Results obtained withVicia faba (broad bean) samples from various sources are recorded and reference made to data obtained from some other leguminous crops.     

Agrobotanical traits and chemical composition of Cassia obtusifolia L.: A lesser-known legume of the Western Ghats region of South India

Four accessions of the lesser-known legume, Cassia obtusifolia L. (Sickle pod), collected from four different agroclimatic regions of Western Ghats, were evaluated for agrobotanical traits and chemical composition. Amongthe four accessions, the Keriparai accession had the highest values for plant height (cm), number of flowers per cluster, number of pods per cluster, pod length (cm), seeds per pod, seed weight (g) per pod and seed recovery percentage. Crude protein ranged from 18.56–22.93%, crude lipid was between 5.35–7.40%, crude fiber ranged from 6.83–9.45%, ash content ranged from 5.14–5.83% and carbohydrate varied from 57.00–60.69%. Globulins constituted the bulk of the seed protein as in most legumes. Mineral profiles, viz., sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, copper, zinc and manganese ranged from 42.92–84.83, 758.05–1555.79, 559.92–791.72, 456.36–709.47, 629.13–947.79, 8.42–12.35, 0.93–2.06, 10.60–30.04 and 2.12–4.12 Mg/100 g seeds flour, respectively. Seed proteins of all accessions exhibited relatively high levels of non-essential and essential amino acids, with the exception of threonine. The in vitro protein digestibility of the legume ranged from 74.66 to 81.44%. Antinutritional substances such as total free phenolics ranged from 0.34–0.66%; tannins were between 0.47–0.60%, L-DOPA content ranged from 0.98–1.34%; trypsin inhibitor activity varied from 11.4–13.5 TIU/mg protein and chymotrypsin inhibitor activity ranged from 10.8–12.3 CIU/mg protein. Phytohemagglutinating activity also was assayed. Inconclusion, the accessions of C. obtusifolia, collected from Western Ghats, South India, could serve as a low-cost source of some important nutrients for humans. The antinutritional factors might have little nutritional significance, if the seeds are processed properly.     

Nutritional and Antinutritional Characteristics of Seven South Indian Wild Legumes

Seeds from seven species of wild legumes of the South India were analyzed for proximate composition, mineral profiles, amino acid profiles of total seed protein, in vitro protein digestibility, and certain antinutritional factors to assess their potential as alternative sources of protein crops. The major findings of the study were as follows: crude protein ranged from 20.3 to 35.0%, crude lipid 3.1–9.6%, crude fiber 5.9–12.1%, ash 2.7–5.1%, and carbohydrates 49.2–61.8%. Minerals viz., sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, copper, zinc, and manganese occurred in the range 42.9–135.9, 556.2–1639.5, 304.5–572.2, 174.9–686.7, 98.4–947.8, 3.6–16.4, 0.2–1.2, 2.0–30.0, and 1.0–3.9 mg/100 g seed flour, respectively. Profiles of amino acids of total seed proteins detected in the present study revealed that levels of valine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, isoleucine, and histidine of all the seven wild legume seed samples, threonine of Canavalia ensiformis and C. gladiata, leucine of Mucuna pruriens var. pruriens, and lysine of Cassia floribunda and C. obtusifolia were found to be higher than FAO/WHO (1991) requirement pattern. The in vitro protein digestibility of the legumes under study ranged from 63.39 to 83.32%. Antinutritional factors such as total free phenolics ranged from 0.41 to 5.96%, tannins from 0.04 to 0.60%, L-DOPA from 1.34 to 8.37% and trypsin inhibitor activity from 13.48 to 65.43 TIU/mg protein. The detected antinutritional factors probably have little nutritional significance if the seeds are properly processed.     

Seed production of semi-natural grasslands: Amount and variability in an unfertilized upright brome and a fertilized tall oat-grass meadow

Seed production is an important grassland feature, as it affects its persistence and botanical composition, and plays an essential role in complex plant–animal interactions. Species-rich seed mixtures from grasslands can be utilized for ecological restoration. Previous studies used different methods to characterize seed production and did not consider all the main aspects involved; hence, they did not allow the complete understanding of the seed production. In this study the seed yield of an unfertilized Mesobromion and a fertilized Arrhenatherion meadow were investigated by considering all main reproductive traits and grassland species. In Arrhenatherion, the viable seed production was 24,000 seeds m⁻² year⁻¹, with a viable seed set of 21% (ovule number 115,000 m⁻²). These values were three times higher than those in Mesobromion. This difference was mainly attributed to different fertile shoot densities (758 vs. 358 m⁻² for Arrhenatherion and Mesobromion respectively). Grasses transformed ovules to seeds (38%) more efficiently than forbs (11%). The standing seed yield at the first mowing was 35% and 45% of the produced seeds for Mesobromion and Arrhenatherion respectively. Because of late mowing, which is typical for Mesobromion meadows, the proportion of species found as seed at the first mowing was higher than that in Arrhenatherion. However, because many Mesobromion species were found to be poorly seed-producing forbs with high spatial and temporal variabilities of seed yield, harvesting of seeds of all species would be more difficult, and a greater effort would be necessary if the collected seeds are to be used in ecological restoration.     

Nutrient composition and biological evaluation of mesta (Hibiscus sabdariffa) seeds

Two varieties of mesta (Hibiscus sabdariffa) seeds were analysed for their proximate composition. Their protein (18.8–22.3%), fat (19.1–22.8%) and dietary fiber (39.5–42.6%) contents were found to be high. The seeds were found to be a good source of minerals like phosphorus, magnesium and calcium. Their lysine and tryptophan contents were also high. Sulphur containing amino acids were limiting in this seed protein and the chemical score of mesta seed protein was 40 and 57 for AMV-2 and Bhimili-1 varieties respectively. Mesta seed oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids (70%), of which linoleic acid constituted 44%. Weanling rats were fed with 10% mesta seed protein before and after cooking for 4 weeks. Food intake of animals receiving raw mesta seed diets was significantly lower than those receiving cooked mesta seed diets as well as the casein control diet. Protein and dry matter digestibilities of raw and cooked mesta seed diets were lower than that of casein control diet. Cooking improved the food intake, gain in body weight, dry matter and protein digestibility of mesta seed diets. PER and NPU of cooked mesta seed diets were significantly higher than the corresponding raw diets. These results indicate that cooked mesta seed protein is of relatively good quality.     

Nutritional value and content of antinutritional compounds and toxics in ten wild legumes of Yucatan Peninsula

The chemical and toxicological composition of ten wild legumes collected in Yucatan, Mexico was determined. For each species the whole fruit, (seed and pod), were studied as well as the seed and pod separately. A higher protein content was found in the seeds ofA. lebbeck andP. saman (37.07 and 37.60% respectively). In the seeds ofL. longystilus, C. yucatanensis andP. keyense a high concentration of fat was found, especially in the first with 31.34%. A high quantity of fiber was found in the pods. In general, the samples were rich in lysine (especially seeds) and scant in sulfur amino acids and tryptophan. All the samples showed high concentration of potassium and calcium. Some of them exhibited significant concentrations of iron. The pods ofP. saman and P. keyense showed a high content of lectins. In the seeds ofC. yucatanensis and in the pod ofP. keyense high concentrations of trypsin inhibitors were found 60 and 406.7 TUI/mg sample respectively. The presence of saponins, was detected in seven samples, of which the seed ofP. keyense had the highest concentration. Alkaloids were found only in the whole fruit and pod ofP. saman and cyanogenic glucosides were present inA. pennatula. In general terms, the whole legume showed better digestibility than the pods alone.     

A bioplastic-based seed coating improves seedling growth and reduces production of coated seed dust

Although recently introduced, film-coating of agronomic seeds is now widely accepted in modern agriculture as an effective technology for protecting germinating seeds and seedlings. These experiments explored the possibility of using a bioplastic-based formulation to film-coat corn (maize; Zea mays L.) and canola (Brassica napus L.) seeds, alone and in combination with synthetic pesticides and plant growth-promoting bacteria. The thin bioplastic coat did not affect percent germination or seedling growth. However, incorporating spores of the plant growth-promoting bacterium Bacillus subtilis QST 713 into the bioplastic matrix resulted in a greater elongation of corn and canola seedlings than that of seedlings from untreated seeds. Specifically, stems and roots of seedlings that germinated from corn seeds coated with bioplastic containing spores were 18.0% and 21.4% longer, respectively, than stems and roots from uncoated control seeds. In canola seeds, these values were 19.9% and 20.9% higher for stem and roots, respectively. Incorporating a neonicotinoid insecticide, imidacloprid, and a fungicide, pyraclostrobin, into bioplastic coatings, along with B. subtilis spores, provided results comparable to spores and bioplastic alone. Coated seeds were also evaluated for their potential to generate dust after abrasion testing, using a novel image-based method made possible because seed coatings are typically artificially colored. Abraded seed coat fragments are consequently easily detectable with conventional optical instruments. Corn and canola seeds coated with bioplastic released up to 86.1% and 97.6% less dust during abrasive handling than seeds coated with a commercial seed coating matrix measured by the optical approach described here.     

Association of growth dynamics, yield components and seed quality in long-term trials covering rapeseed cultivation history at high latitudes

Brassica oilseed yield trend has declined in Finland by over 20% during the last 15 years. Improved genetic yield potential of turnip rape (B. rapa L.) and oilseed rape (B. napus L.) can be better realised with increased understanding of yield determining processes under northernmost growing conditions. This study aimed at (1) determining the genetic improvements in seed yield, yield components, quality traits and duration of the main growth phases and (2) comparing all these traits in turnip rape and oilseed rape. This work is based on the dataset from long-term Official Variety Trials (1976–2006), covering the entire historically relevant period of rapeseed cultivation in Finland. The results indicated that number of seeds per square metre dominated production of high yields, while single seed weight was not correlated with yield. Over the years, seed yields were produced with very different combinations of seed numbers and weights, differing markedly between the two crops. While high seed numbers were required for production of superior seed yields, single seed weights were not particularly high. Environmental variation markedly affected seed yield, seed number per square metre and duration of flowering compared with its effect on single seed weight. Duration of flowering was, however, negatively associated with seed number. Even though seed weight was largely determined by genotype, no marked plant breeding improvements were identified, contrary to those in number of seeds per square metre, seed yield, oil content and oil yield. For oilseed rape the increase in seed yield (41%) was far higher than for turnip rape (19%) without being associated with a longer seed-filling phase and later ripening, but rather the contrary.     

Method for analysis of fatty acid distribution and oil content on a single Lesquerella fendleri seed

Lesquerella fendleri is a developing oilseed crop suitable for temperate growing regions in the US. The seed oil is rich in lesquerolic acid (57%) and could serve as a domestic source of hydroxy fatty acids. A method for the analysis of fatty acids and total oil content of a half or single lesquerella seed was developed. Lesquerella seeds are small with 1000 seed weights around 0.6 g (half seed mass of 200–500 μg). Conventional analytical balances provide mass accuracy to ±40 μg which fails to provide sufficient accuracy/precession (4–40% mass error) for the initial seed mass. A microbalance which measures to ±2 μg provided good reproducibility in initial seed weights but was not suitable for mass balance of the extracted oil. A normal phase HPLC coupled to an evaporative light scattering detector gave good response for oil in the mass range of 22 μg to 110 μg/mL. Therefore, micelle concentrations from single or half seed extractions could be determined with good reproducibility. This method was then evaluated on bulk seed that had been fractionated on a gravity table. Gravity table fractionation of L. fendleri seeds obtained from a large field plot provided seven fractions with increasing bulk density. These fractions were then analyzed in sets of 30 individual seeds and as an aggregate of 50 seeds. Oil content for individual seeds varied widely (15.6–44.2%) as did lesquerolic acid content (42.2–63.7%). The mean oil content increased (27–33%) with increasing bulk density (684–745 g/L). The mean lesquerolic acid content did not correlate with bulk density.     

Seed longevity and seedling emergence rate of Urochloa decumbens as influenced by sowing depth in a Cerrado soil

Urochloa decumbens (Signal grass) is an African grass species that is widely used in Brazil for pasture formation, and it has a high potential for invading natural areas. This study evaluated the longevity of U. decumbens seeds in the soil seed bank and the emergence rates of seedlings from different depths. In the greenhouse (natural light; ~25°C), seeds were sown at depths of 0, 1, 2 or 3 cm, in trays filled with sterile soil, to assess seedling emergence. Seeds sowed on the soil surface began to germinate 3 days after sowing. Seeds sowed at depths of 2 and 3 cm germinated 5 days after sowing. No seedlings emerged after 15 days. The seedling emergence rate was 74 ± 7% with no significant difference between sowing depths. In the field, seed longevity was evaluated by burying 60 replicates of 100 seeds at a soil depth of 2–3 cm, in a Cerrado area in the IBGE Ecological Reserve, Brasília. From September 2016 to April 2017, five samples were retrieved monthly to assess seed viability. In September, the viability was 68%, declining to 3% in October; by February, viable seeds were no longer recorded. As U. decumbens flowers in several episodes throughout the year, a soil survey may result in a misleading interpretation of the formation of a permanent soil seed bank.