Embryo gene expression in pig pregnancy

Pregnancy is a complex process in which significant changes occur continually in both the corpora lutea and in the endometrium of the females and varies depending on the embryonic, pre-implantation or foetal stages. In the embryonic stages, the majority of genes expressed in the pig embryo correspond to the loss of cellular pluripotency. In contrast, the implantation consists of three phases: elongation of the conceptus, adhesion and union of the embryo to the endometrial epithelium. During these phases, many factors are expressed, including growth factors, molecules that facilitate adhesion and cytokines. All these changes are ultimately regulated by different lipid and hormonal substances, specifically by progesterone, oestradiol and prostaglandins, which regulate the expression of many proteins necessary for the development of the embryo, endometrial remodelling and embryo–maternal communication. This paper is a review of primary gene regulatory mechanisms in pigs during different stages of implantation.     

Select nutrients and their effects on conceptus development in mammals

The dialogue between the mammalian conceptus(embryo/fetus and associated membranes) involves signaling for pregnancy recognition and maintenance of pregnancy during the critical peri-implantation period of pregnancy when the stage is set for implantation and placentation that precedes fetal development. Uterine epithelial cells secrete and/or transport a wide range of molecules, including nutrients,collectively referred to as histotroph that are transported into the fetal-placental vascular system to support growth and development of the conceptus. The availability of uterine-derived histotroph has long-term consequences for the health and well-being of the fetus and the prevention of adult onset of metabolic diseases. Histotroph includes numerous amino acids, but arginine plays a particularly important role as a source of nitric oxide and polyamines required for fetal-placental development in rodents, swine and humans through mechanisms that remain to be fully elucidated. Mechanisms whereby arginine regulates expression of genes via the mechanistic target of rapamycin cell signaling pathways critical to conceptus development, implantation and placentation are discussed in detail in this review.     

MicroRNA调控胚胎植入研究进展

植入是胚胎与子宫内膜识别、接触并依附于子宫内膜上或进一步侵入、包埋于子宫内膜中的过程,是哺乳动物生殖生理的重要环节,这一过程对于胚胎能够在子宫持续的发育并最终获得成功的妊娠是必需的。成功的植入需要同步发育的正常胚胎、容受性的子宫内膜及母胎的和谐对话来实现。胚胎植入过程复杂而短暂,参与调控的因素有很多,包括microRNA。论文介绍了与植入相关microRNA的最新研究进展,包括microRNA对胚胎发育、子宫内膜的容受性等方面的作用,将为我们理解植入机制提供新的视角。     

Uterine biology in pigs and sheep

There is a dialogue between the developing conceptus (embryo-fetus and associated placental membranes) and maternal uterus which must be established during the peri-implantation period for pregnancy recognition signaling, implantation, regulation of gene expression by uterine epithelial and stromal cells, placentation and exchange of nutrients and gases. The uterus provide a microenvironment in which molecules secreted by uterine epithelia or transported into the uterine lumen represent histotroph required for growth and development of the conceptus and receptivity of the uterus to implantation. Pregnancy recognition signaling mechanisms sustain the functional lifespan of the corpora lutea (CL) which produce progesterone, the hormone of pregnancy essential for uterine functions that support implantation and placentation required for a successful outcome of pregnancy. It is within the peri-implantation period that most embryonic deaths occur due to deficiencies attributed to uterine functions or failure of the conceptus to develop appropriately, signal pregnancy recognition and/or undergo implantation and placentation. With proper placentation, the fetal fluids and fetal membranes each have unique functions to ensure hematotrophic and histotrophic nutrition in support of growth and development of the fetus. The endocrine status of the pregnant female and her nutritional status are critical for successful establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. This review addresses the complexity of key mechanisms that are characteristic of successful reproduction in sheep and pigs and gaps in knowledge that must be the subject of research in order to enhance fertility and reproductive health of livestock species.     

Uterine biology in pigs and sheep

ABSTRACT: There is a dialogue between the developing conceptus (embryo-fetus and associated placental membranes) and maternal uterus which must be established during the peri-implantation period for pregnancy recognition signaling, implantation, regulation of gene expression by uterine epithelial and stromal cells, placentation and exchange of nutrients and gases. The uterus provide a microenvironment in which molecules secreted by uterine epithelia or transported into the uterine lumen represent histotroph required for growth and development of the conceptus and receptivity of the uterus to implantation. Pregnancy recognition signaling mechanisms sustain the functional lifespan of the corpora lutea (CL) which produce progesterone, the hormone of pregnancy essential for uterine functions that support implantation and placentation required for a successful outcome of pregnancy. It is within the peri-implantation period that most embryonic deaths occur due to deficiencies attributed to uterine functions or failure of the conceptus to develop appropriately, signal pregnancy recognition and/or undergo implantation and placentation. With proper placentation, the fetal fluids and fetal membranes each have unique functions to ensure hematotrophic and histotrophic nutrition in support of growth and development of the fetus. The endocrine status of the pregnant female and her nutritional status are critical for successful establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. This review addresses the complexity of key mechanisms that are characteristic of successful reproduction in sheep and pigs and gaps in knowledge that must be the subject of research in order to enhance fertility and reproductive health of livestock species.     

外泌体在哺乳动物胚胎附植中的作用研究进展

外泌体的分泌是不同类型的细胞间信息交流的一种重要方法,近几年发现外泌体在胚胎附植中介导胚胎与母体的信息交流起重要作用。本文综述了外泌体的主要释放机制和分离鉴定方法、子宫内膜细胞和胚胎来源的外泌体在哺乳动物中调节胚胎附植的重要作用,为提高动物胚胎附植的成功率提供新依据,也为人类体外受精、辅助生殖技术的改进提供参考资料。     

Effects of ethinylestradiol and danazol on embryo survival and implantation in mated beagle bitches

Eleven mature Beagle bitches were artificially inseminated and then used to determine the effects of ethinylestradiol or danazol on nidation, embryo survival and maintenance of pregnancy. The dogs were grouped so that three were kept as controls, four others were treated with ethinylestradiol and the remaining four were treated with danazol. The compounds were administered orally at varying intervals after insemination. The effects of the compounds were deduced from the condition of the ovaries and uterus examined at laparotomy, and the results of whelping. Ethinylestradiol had minimal effect on embryo development and implantation. Three of four bitches treated with ethinylestradiol whelped. Similarly, danazol treatment had little or no effect on embryonic survival and implantation. It is concluded that, ethinylestradiol or danazol at the dosages and schedules used in this study did not significantly interfere with embryonic survival or implantation in pregnant Beagle bitches.     

Cyclopamine did not affect mouse oocyte maturation in vitro but decreased early embryonic development

Hedgehog (Hh) pathway has been studied in various animal body life procedures and is suggested to be important for the development of multiple organs. The genes involved in the Hh signaling pathway were expressed in the ovary of mice, pigs and cattle. However, the function of Hh signaling pathway on oocyte maturation and early embryonic development is still controversial. We detected the effect of sonic hedgehog (Shh) and cyclopamine on the in vitro maturation of mouse oocytes and embryo development. The results showed that the presence of Shh or cyclopamine resulted in similar oocyte maturation to control groups. Shh did not improve early embryonic development. However, the supplement of cyclopamine depressed early embryo development. The mRNA of shh, ptch1, smo and gli1 were less detected in the denuded oocytes. The expression levels of ptch1 ascended from the uncleaved zygote to blastocyst stage. Smo or gli1 were expressed on a higher level at the two‐cell or four‐cell stage in early embryonic development separately. Therefore, Shh did not affect mouse oocyte maturation and early embryo development, but cyclopamine led to inhibited development of mouse early embryo. The effects of Hh signaling on the oocyte maturation and early embryo development might be species‐specific.     

胚胎植入及其分子机制研究进展

哺乳动物的胚胎植入是生殖过程的一个重要环节,是妊娠的关键。包括胚胎对母体子宫内膜的识别、黏附、侵入等过程。正常情况下,胚胎仅在一个极短的时间内有机会附着到子宫内膜上,即胚泡滋养层达到侵入状态,子宫内膜达到接受状态,且两者同步发生,胚泡才会成功植入。胚胎植入的成功必须具备许多条件,需要足够的激素分泌,合体滋养层细胞形成,以及胚泡与子宫内膜同步发育与相互配合等。这一过程的调控机制十分复杂,至今仍是生殖医学领域中尚未解决的问题。文章就胚胎植入的基本过程及其分子机制做简要综述。     

Two concepts on the immunological aspect of blastocyst implantation

The process of blastocyst implantation is a series of interactions between the blastocyst and maternal tissues. The purpose of this process is (1) to provide nourishment to the embryo for developmental growth in appropriate physiological and endocrinological environment until a placenta is established, and (2) to protect the (semi-)allogeneic embryo from any attacks from the maternal immune system. To facilitate successful implantation, therefore, these two aspects of the embryonic demand must be satisfied in the embryo-maternal interface throughout the entire process of implantation. The first concept I present in this paper is that blastocyst implantation essential factors (BIEFs) have dual functions: one, for structural and functional modification of the endometrium to accommodate the developing embryo and provide nourishment and suitable environment for its development, and the other, for modulation, directly or indirectly, of the maternal immune system to prevent attacks by the maternal immune system. The second concept is that BIEFs convert the endometrium (or uterus) from an immunologically non-privileged site to a privileged site. This endometrial (uterine) conversion is the immunological aspect of the blastocyst implantation process. When the endometrium has become receptive for blastocyst implantation, it signifies that the immunological conversion of the endometrium by BIEFs has been sufficiently attained to let the embryo start contacting maternal tissues. During the early stages of placentation, as the trophoblast cells differentiate and make their way to the maternal blood vessels to establish the placenta, BIEFs continuously provide nourishment and immunological protection to the developing embryo. The immunological protection of the embryo/fetus from potential attacks by the maternal immune system appears to reach a peak at the time of establishment of the placenta. Thus, clarification of the roles of BIEFs in both the physiological/endocrinological aspect as well as the immunological aspect is essential for understanding the biological process of implantation.     

Description of post‐implantation embryonic stages in European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) after embryonic diapause

The embryonic stage of development is defined as the period between fertilization and the establishment of most of the organ systems by the end of this period. Development in this stage is rapid. In many mammalian species, particularly in humans, the interval between fertilization and implantation is exactly determined and continuous without intermission. However, European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) embryos undergo a reversible retardation of development. This interesting reproduction strategy is called embryonic diapause (delayed implantation). After this period of embryonic arrest, development continues without further interruption. The aim of this study was to investigate embryonic development after diapause in European roe deer. Because of the embryonic diapause and the unknown date of fertilization, it was impossible to assign the embryos to a certain gestational age (days). This study describes normal stages of embryonic development mainly based on the external morphological traits of 56 well‐preserved post‐implantation roe deer embryos and attempts to assign the embryos to certain development stages. Carnegie stages of human embryos were used as an orientation for staging roe deer embryos. We observed a considerable range of variation of embryonic stages investigated until the end of January. We found post‐implantation stages of embryonic development already at the end of December and foetuses at the end of January. Moreover, assigning the embryos to a particular stage of development allows the comparison between pairs of twins and triplets. We showed that twins and triplets were always at the same development level, despite the discrepancy in inter‐twin and inter‐triplet size.     

白血病抑制因子及其受体与子宫内膜的关系

白血病抑制因子(LIF)是一种多生物活性的细胞因子,研究表明,LIF在人及动物的子宫内膜的腺上皮细胞、妊娠期蜕膜及胎盘上均有表达;胚泡是动物生殖过程中的关键,一些细胞因子起重要作用,它们能够充当子宫内膜微环境的"局部调节者",LIF对哺乳动物胚胎发育到胚泡阶段具有一定的作用,LIF在子宫内膜中特异性表达,促进胚胎生长发育和启动胚泡植入;LIF在生殖周期中影响子宫的功能及调节子宫内膜生长,这可能与LIF作用于子宫使其能发生蜕膜反应有关;LIF通过与LIF受体及gp130蛋白作用而发挥重要的生物学功能。LIF在哺乳动物早期妊娠中的作用机制具有重要意义。文章对LIF及其受体与子宫内膜的关系做了综述。     

猪妊娠期母胎对话的研究进展

母胎对话是母体与胎儿在妊娠过程中建立的一种复杂对话关系，是成功附植和妊娠的必要条件，这一对话关系受到众多因素的调控。母胎对话异常会导致胚胎附植及妊娠的失败，并影响妊娠期胎儿的正常发育，因此妊娠期的母胎对话对于提高繁殖效率意义重大。本文主要以猪为模式动物综述了母体与胎儿从妊娠识别(妊娠前)、胚胎附植(妊娠中)到胎儿发育(妊娠后)过程中影响母胎对话的因素，包括激素、细胞因子、黏附因子、基因和蛋白质等，以期为猪母胎对话的研究和产仔数提高提供参考。     

Ontogeny of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in the chicken embryo: a review

The embryo of the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) tenders one distinctive advantage over general mammalian models for investigating the development of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis. This is the relative simplicity with which the embryonic endocrine environment can be influenced without confounding maternal influences. The ease of direct manipulation of the embryonic endocrine system has facilitated analysis of the development and function of the HPA axis in the chick embryo. As the chick embryo develops, functional activation of the adrenal gland is regulated at three different levels: the adrenal gland itself, the anterior pituitary, and the hypothalamus. The adrenal gland appears capable of independent secretion of glucocorticoids from day 8 until shortly after day 14 of embryonic development, at which point the pituitary influences adrenocortical activity. Around the same age, the hypothalamic level of control also begins. The information covered in this review will describe the major steps in the development of the HPA axis in the chicken embryo and show that the chicken has an emblematic HPA neuroendocrine axis.     

Embryo‐maternal Communication during the First Days of Embryonic Life

The mechanisms of embryo‐maternal communication during the first days of embryonic life are largely unknown. Using the bovine as a model, the aims of our study were to morphologically characterize the interaction between the pre‐implantation embryo and the epithelium of the maternal ampulla, isthmus and uterotubal junction by light and scanning electron microscopy. For this purpose, oviducts were removed from cows revealing a functional corpus luteum on day 3 after insemination. These were compared to oviducts removed on day 3 (metestrus) of the estrous cycle. Three days after insemination, the majority of the epithelial cells in the ampulla were secretory cells distinctly protruding into the oviductal lumen. Contrary the ampulla of cows on day 3 of the cycle predominantly revealed ciliated cells in the oviductal epithelium. As shown by Periodic Acid Schiff reaction (PAS) with and without amylase digestion, the secretory cells of the ampulla synthesized merely glycoproteins during metestrus, but large amounts of glycogen during pregnancy. In the isthmus no morphological differences were seen between pregnant and cyclic cows. The most conspicuous finding during pregnancy was seen in the uterotubal junction: Vital cumulus cells embedded in between epithelial cells had developed short cytoplasmic processes intensely contacting the epithelial uterine cells. The embryos obtained ex vivo were regularly covered with a thick layer of homogenous extracellular matrix. Contrary embryos produced in vitro– both with and without coculture with oviductal cells –revealed a clearly visible zona pellucida with spongy appearance and numerous pores. Our results imply that already during the first days of life there is intense interaction of the pre‐implantation embryo and the maternal genital tract part of which may be mediated by cumulus cells.     

外泌体对哺乳动物妊娠的调控作用

外泌体（exosome）广泛存在于各种体液中，其内部包含蛋白质、脂质、mRNA和miRNA等在细胞间进行物质和信息传递的多种生物活性成分，参与调节机体多种生理过程。近年来，研究学者相继发现子宫液、输卵管液、胎盘中也存在外泌体，且证明其可能参与配子发生、受精、胎盘发生、胚胎着床及胎儿发育等生殖过程，进一步加深了人们对哺乳动物妊娠过程的认识，为一些重要的生殖调控机理研究提供了新的思路。因此，本文主要阐述了外泌体的发现、外泌体在哺乳动物妊娠中的作用以及与妊娠疾病关系的最新进展，为进一步揭示外泌体在哺乳动物妊娠中的调控作用提供参考。     

同步发情对奶牛冷冻胚胎移植受体牛妊娠率的影响

[目的]探讨提高奶牛冷冻胚胎移植妊娠率方法。[方法]对比1次、2次同步发情奶牛冷冻胚胎移植受体母牛的试验妊娠率。[结果]1次、2次同步发情胚胎移植妊娠率分别为44.45%和70.73%。[结论]同步发情对胚胎移植妊娠率有很大影响,2次同步发情可显著提高奶牛冷冻胚胎移植妊娠率。