Public Health Argument to Retain Current UK National Controls for Tick and Tapeworms Under the Pet Travel Scheme

At present, the European Council is debating whether the current national controls under the Pet Travel Scheme (PETS), which aims to prevent the introduction of rabies and tapeworms or live ticks and their associated diseases into the United Kingdom (UK), should be harmonized amongst European Union (EU) Member States. There is a strong case to support the retention of control measures on human health grounds. Although many are aware of the implications of rabies infection, few realize the risk to the UK population if current tick and tapeworm controls under PETS were to be removed. If this were to occur, there is a risk that a number of diseases of human health importance may be introduced and become established in the UK. Such diseases include alveolar echinococcosis, tick borne encephalitis, tularaemia and Mediterranean spotted fever; all of which are found in other EU Member States but do not occur in the UK. These four diseases are responsible for a significant burden of disease in Europe, and current national controls under PETS have been highly effective in so far preventing their introduction into the UK.     

Book Reviews

Book reviewed in this article:
INTEGUMENT Nancy A. Monteiro-Rivere and Al W. Stinson. In: TEXTBOOK OF VETERINARY HISTOLOGY, 4th edition, H.-Deiter Dellman ed.
MANUAL OF EXOTIC PETS. Peter H. Beynon and John E. Cooper.     

Clinical and laboratory investigations of five outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease during the 2001 epidemic in the United Kingdom

Clinical and laboratory investigations of five outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) were made during the early stages of the 2001 epidemic in the UK. The first outbreak, confirmed on February 20, was at an abattoir in Essex which specialised in the processing of culled sows and boars. On February 23, the disease was confirmed at a pig farm in Northumberland which held cull sows and boars fed on waste food; the findings indicated that it was the first of the five premises to be infected. The disease had probably been present since early February, and it was the most likely origin of the epidemic. The other premises investigated were a waste food-fed cull sow/boar pig unit in Essex, approximately 30 km from the abattoir, which was probably infected at the same time or before the abattoir, a sheep and cattle farm approximately 6 km from the Northumberland pig farm, which was probably infected by airborne virus from it in the period immediately before February 13, and a sheep and cattle farm in Devon which had clinical disease from February 20 and was probably infected by sheep transported from Northumberland on February 13 which arrived on February 15.     

Veterinary pharmacovigilance. Part 2. Veterinary pharmacovigilance in practice -- the operation of a spontaneous reporting scheme in a European Union country -- the UK, and schemes in other countries

Veterinary pharmacovigilance, as it operates in the European Union (EU), covers a very broad remit, including adverse effects in treated animals, exposed humans and the environment, and in addition, it extends to cover the violation of maximum residue limits. The mainstay of veterinary pharmacovigilance is the spontaneous reporting scheme working along side other systems such as those reporting on residues surveillance. One of the most well established schemes in the EU is that operating in the UK and this paper examines the evolution of that scheme and some of its findings, data from other countries, and information available from the literature. It also tentatively examines the ways that pharmacovigilance can be used for regulatory purposes, and the contribution from pharmacoepidemiology.     

Subconjunctival Dirofilaria repens infection in a dog resident in the UK

Dirofilaria repens infection was diagnosed in a 5‐year‐old female German shepherd crossbreed, originally from Romania but brought into the UK in February 2014. The dog presented with conjunctivitis in March 2014 and then again 2 months later with additional ocular and nasal mucopurulent discharge. Bacterial cultures from the nasolacrimal duct were negative for bacterial growth. The case was referred in August 2014 for ophthalmic examination, which revealed abnormalities in both eyes, especially the left. They included mild palpebral conjunctival hyperaemia and marked follicular conjunctivitis, as well as a dorsonasal bulbar conjunctival mass. Serum biochemistry was unremarkable and a conjunctival biopsy taken from the dorsonasal bulbar conjunctival mass revealed eosinophilic/lymphoplasmacytic conjunctivitis. At re‐examination, nematodes were found in the area of the previous biopsy site and in the ventral palpebral conjunctival fornix. Polymerase chain reaction and sequencing confirmed these to be D. repens. Treatment with 10% imidacloprid and 2·5% moxidectin (Advocate Spot‐On) was successful, and clinical signs resolved over a 6‐week period. This case report indicates that D. repens infection should be considered as a possible aetiological cause of ocular lesions in dogs in the UK, especially those with a history of foreign travel. Implications for establishment and spread of D. repens in the UK are discussed.     

Equine viral arteritis (EVA): A potential trapdoor for the practicing veterinary surgeon in the United Kingdom

Equine viral arteritis (EVA) is a notifiable disease in the UK with potentially serious consequences for horse owners and breeders. Legislation exists under ‘The Equine Viral Arteritis Order 1995’ to protect the UK from this contagious equine disease. The UK is at risk of introduction of EVA through importation of infected horses or semen. There is however much misunderstanding regarding the importance of EVA and occasionally misinterpretation, specifically on how to protect and manage stallions with vaccination. Issues with changing vaccine datasheet recommendations and vaccine availability have resulted in stallions being inappropriately vaccinated or vaccinations lapsing. This article is aimed at the practicing veterinary surgeon, to update them as to the current status of EVA vaccination and disease screening in horses in the UK and how to avoid some common pitfalls.     

Cataract in the UK Leonberger population

OBJECTIVE: To survey the Leonberger, a numerically small breed in the UK, for the presence of cataract and find statistical support for the possible presence of inherited forms of cataract. METHODS: Ocular examinations were carried out by the first author between September 1996 and September 1998 on 211 Leonbergers; results of the ocular examination of further 228 Leonbergers examined between January 1990 and September 1998 by members of the British Veterinary Association/KC/ISDS eye scheme (BVA/KC/ISDS eye scheme) panel were analyzed. Data from all dogs examined were pooled in a composite database of 365 Leonbergers and the relationships between offspring and parents for the identified forms of cataract were examined with appropriate statistical methods. RESULTS: Cataracts were diagnosed in 90 Leonbergers, the majority being nuclear (40) or posterior polar subcapsular (31). A subgroup of nuclear cataracts, diagnosed in 11 dogs, is described and named as 'posterior nuclear cataract.' For posterior polar cataract, a positive association between offspring and parents was made in the logistic regression model, supporting the suggestion of inheritance. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of several types of cataract in the UK Leonberger population is described. Statistical support for the inheritance of posterior polar subcapsular cataract is given.     

Catastrophic biaxial proximal sesamoid bone fractures in UK Thoroughbred races (1999–2004): Horse characteristics and racing history

Reason for performing study: Catastrophic biaxial proximal sesamoid bone fractures (PSBF) have not yet been described in detail in the UK racing population. Objectives: To determine the incidence and relative risk (RR) of PSBF in different types of racing in the UK; and to describe horse‐level characteristics and racing histories of horses sustaining these injuries. Methods: Distal limbs were collected from all racehorses suffering catastrophic fractures during racing at all 59 racecourses in the UK, in a prospective study from February 1999 to December 2004. Post mortem investigation identified the anatomical location and type of fracture. Horse, racing history, race and racecourse details were obtained. Characteristics of the horses that sustained PSBF were described. The incidence and RR of PSBF in the different types of racing in the UK were calculated. Results: Thirty‐one horses suffered PSBF during the study period. The incidence of PSBF in all types of race was 0.63 per 10,000 starts (31/494,744). The incidence was highest in flat races on all weather surfaces (1.63 per 10,000 starts: 12/73,467; RR = 4.4 when compared to turf flat racing). Affected horses had an average age of 5.6 years and had started a mean of 28 races at the time of fracture. Conclusion and potential relevance: There is a strong association between type of racing surface and PSBF. Horses competing in flat races on all weather surfaces have an increased risk of PSBF. These fractures appear to happen in experienced horses with several starts, with few fractures occurring within the first season of racing. Further research should focus on identification of underlying pathology of these fractures. Epidemiological studies aimed at the identification of risk factors for PSBF in the UK racing population would require a large number of cases acquired over many years given the relatively low incidence of PSBF.     

Reference intervals for biochemical and haematological parameters in mature domestic donkeys (Equus asinus) in the UK

Reference intervals (RIs) for haematology and serum biochemistry for donkeys in a temperate climate have been previously published using blood sample results from the resident population of a large donkey shelter in the UK. Periodic review of reference intervals is recommended to ensure their applicability to the patient population and changes in laboratory methods and technologies. The current study aimed to revise the previously published haematology and serum biochemistry values for the adult domestic donkey (Equus asinus) in the UK in the light of a change in analytical equipment at the Donkey Sanctuary laboratory, but also to refine the demography of the sample population with respect to age, physiology and clinical history. Clinical pathology results from 138 clinically healthy mature (4–24 years inclusive) female and castrated male donkeys selected from the resident population of the Donkey Sanctuary, were analysed retrospectively. The animals were blood sampled during the period February 2008 to June 2011 as part of a routine health screen prior to rehoming. Results for a total of 38 biochemical and haematological parameters were analysed including 3 previously unreferenced parameters in addition to those assessed in the previous study. The new reference intervals and median values show very poor transferability with recently derived reference intervals for non‐Thoroughbred horses and only limited transferability with reference intervals previously published for donkeys in the UK. Of particular note is a marked reduction in the upper reference limit for triglycerides of 2.8 mmol/l (from 4.3 mmol/l) since this parameter is used to decide when donkeys are at risk of developing hyperlipaemia. This study demonstrates the value of intermittent review of reference intervals and refinement of study populations. Notwithstanding the caution with which reference interval data from different laboratories should be compared, the lack of transferability of results between donkeys and horses highlights the importance of use of species‐appropriate reference intervals for clinical decision‐making.     

Owners' observations of domestic cats after limb amputation

Questionnaires were distributed to owners of cats that had undergone limb amputation in the UK, through 1000 veterinary clinics or publications relating to companion cats, or online. Between July 2009 and February 2010, responses were received relating to 234 cats, and data for 204 of these were included in subsequent analyses. The responses received provided data on signalment, aetiology, quality of life, behavioural changes and pain observed in cats after partial or total amputation of a limb. Young male domestic shorthair cats were over-represented in the sample; the most common reason for amputation was a fractured bone, and the hindlimb was almost twice as likely to be amputated as the forelimb. Although 89 per cent of the cats received analgesics/anti-inflammatories after discharge, the owners of 35 per cent of the animals observed some signs of pain during recovery. Eighty-nine per cent of the cats were thought to have regained a 'normal' quality of life as defined by the owner and 94 per cent of the owners stated that they would agree with the decision to amputate the affected limb in a pet if faced with the same decision again.     

Seasonal changes of testicular weight, sperm production, serum testosterone, and in vitro testosterone release in Korean ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus karpowi)

To study the biology of reproduction of male Korean ring-necked pheasants kept under natural conditions of temperature and photoperiod, testicular weight, serum testosterone concentrations, testosterone release from the luteinizing hormone (LH)-stimulated testis in vitro and sperm production were measured. Significant changes associated with seasonal cycles were found. Testis weight decreased dramatically in August, remained low until February, rapidly increased from March to high levels to June, and decreased subsequently. Serum testosterone concentrations remained little from August until February, but increased sharply in March to reach the highest levels in April. Thereafter, the concentrations decreased significantly from June. The testosterone release was low from August to February, increased abruptly in March to reach the highest levels in May, and showed rapid decrease thereafter. Sperm production decreased to nondetectable levels from August to February, increased markedly in March, reached a peak in May, and sharply decreased thereafter. Thus, the pheasants breed from late March to late June. These results indicate that the Korean ring-necked pheasant, under natural conditions, exhibits characteristics of a seasonal cycle in reproduction.     

Status of wildlife health monitoring in the United Kingdom

There is a clear need to monitor the health of wildlife in the UK, to help to understand the population dynamics of endangered species and to detect any harm to the welfare of wild animals caused by human beings. Despite previous proposals, there has been little progress in the development of a national programme of monitoring. With notable exceptions, the current schemes for investigating the morbidity and mortality of wild animals cover only limited groups of animals and are fragmented and uncoordinated. They consist of statutory schemes of restricted scope, and studies in universities, institutes and wildlife rehabilitation centres with limited funding. As a result, significant disease incidents may remain undetected and others may not be investigated fully, posing risks to the welfare and conservation of wildlife, the welfare of domestic animals, and in some cases to human health. Coordinated national schemes for the surveillance of the health of wildlife are already established in France, the USA and Canada and their best characteristics could be used to develop a scheme for the UK.     

Nodular granulomatous fungal skin diseases of cats in the United Kingdom: a retrospective review

IDEXX Laboratories database of cases submitted from the UK between March 2005 and February 2008 (36 months) was investigated for feline nodular granulomatous skin disease associated with fungal infection. Cytological and/or histological slides were reviewed and the diagnosis was based on the microscopic pattern of the inflammatory response and morphology of the causative organism. Aetiological diagnoses were hyalohyphomycosis (64 of 77 cases), phaeohyphomycosis (five of 77 cases) and dermatophytic pseudomycetoma (eight of 77 cases). All cases of hyalohyphomycosis were suspected to be alternariosis based on common features including anatomical distribution of lesions (48 of 64 cases involved the nostril and bridge of nose, face and ears), pattern of histological changes, morphology of the causative organism and results of fungal culture (Alternaria three of 16 and ‘saprophyte’ nine of 16 cases). Cases of phaeohyphomycosis were demographically and histologically similar to those of alternariosis, except the causative organisms were deeply pigmented brown and had a variety of morphologies that were different from Alternaria. Dermatophytic pseudomycetomas had a characteristic histological pattern including the presence of fungal microcolonies or grains within the tissue. These occurred most often on the trunk (five of eight cases) and four of eight cases were in Persian cats. These findings indicate that alternariosis is by far the most common nodular fungal skin disease of cats in the UK.     

Foot and mouth disease in sheep and goats

Small ruminants play an important role in the epidemiology and transmission of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD). The main reasons therefore are: FMD is difficult to diagnose as infected sheep not always show typical clinical symptoms or as the cardinal signs mimicked other diseases. Sheep and goats may be carriers. Infected herds which practice transhumance or are nomadic can spread the infection to other herds long before diagnose of the disease is established. Shipping and trade with live sheep and goats is much more common world wide than in other FMD susceptible species. Lack of registration of all sheep and goat herds (especially of small hobby herds) and lack of individual identifications signs (ear tags) may result in incomplete control measurements under FMD conditions. Basing on published experiences with the actual FMD epidemic in the UK and basing on the own experiences with the restrictions to prevent from spreading of the FMD from the UK to Germany suggestions for future disease control are made.     

Analysis of horse race videos to identify intra-race risk factors for fatal distal limb fracture

The objective of this study was to identify risk factors, during racing, associated with imminent fatal distal limb fracture in Thoroughbreds. One hundred and nine cases of fatal distal limb fracture were identified from all 59 UK racecourses over a 2-year period (February 1999-January 2001). Three uninjured control horses were randomly selected from the same race as the case horse. Videos of races in which fractures occurred were viewed using a defined protocol. Fractures in flat races occurred at any time during the race, whereas 74% (45/61) of cases in national hunt type races occurred in the second half of races. More than 75% (79/103) of cases were spontaneous, i.e. there was no obvious external influence such as a fall at a fence or collision with another horse. Sixty-six percent (44/67) of horses, sustaining a forelimb fracture, fractured the forelimb they were using as lead leg at the time of fracture. When case and control horses were compared, horses that were: (a) making good progress through the race, (b) reluctant to start and (c) received encouragement in the final 10s before the time of fracture, were more likely to sustain a fracture.     

Intestinal torsion in cattle

Brucella abortus strain 19 vaccine became widely available in New Zealand in 1950. In 1966, vaccination was made compulsory and age restrictions were imposed. Surveys of the cattle population were carried out between 1966 and 1970 to establish the prevalence of brucellosis and to compare the performance of various diagnostic tests under New Zealand conditions. In 1969 and 1970 a voluntary test-and-slaughter scheme was introduced basedon the brucellosis card test as a screening test, the complement fixation test as the definitive test, and the milk ring test to screen accredited dairy herds. This scheme was extended to a compulsory national Brucellosis Eradication Scheme in September 1971, with the aim of bringing all eligible cattle under test by 1977.     

The Brucellosis Eradication Scheme

Extract

Following the completion of the first phase of the Brucellosis Eradication Scheme in August 1977. when all eligible cattle were finally brought under test, a major review of the scheme and projections for future progress were published in the Veterinary Journal. At that time Dr Adlam wrote of the likelihood of changes as the scheme moved from the initial phase towards final eradication. A further five years have now passed and although the scheme has been constantly adapted to changing circumstances it is again timely to review progress. consider future trends and reassess current strategies.     

Calf mortality as a welfare indicator on British cattle farms

The objective of this study was to test calf mortality as an indicator of on-farm welfare and its use for welfare targeted surveillance. Calf mortality data were retrieved for three UK counties to estimate calf mortality rates at holding and county level. A selection criterion based on upper quartiles of calf mortality for the county of concern was defined. Its predictive ability was tested in a field study. The death risk of calves less than 6 months of age in 2002 was 1.76% in Inverness, 5.83% in Cheshire and 4.8% in Norfolk. Fifty-two welfare inspections matched by parish were conducted between October 2004 and January 2005. The positive predictive value was 26.92% and the negative predictive value was 65.38%. The addition of herd type, county and membership to an assurance scheme improved the predictive value. This study shows that calf mortality can be the starting point to design targeted welfare inspections in countries with centralized animal data recording systems.     

Seasonal chemical composition of wall barley (Hodreum murinum L.) under sub-humid Mediterranean climate

Wall barley (Hodreum murinum L.) is an annual cool-season grass species that grows in areas with a Mediterranean climate. It has potential as a forage source in Jordan. The objective was to determine seasonal chemical composition of wall barley grown under sub-humid Mediterranean conditions. A field trial was conducted during 2000 and 2001 growing seasons at Samta (32°23'N, 35°50'E) in the Ajloun Mountains, Jordan. Data were collected on 28 February, 15 March, 30 March, 15 April and 15 May. The lowest fibre content of leaves was on 28 February and 15 March, with a range of 19.5% to 23.3%. Fibre content of leaves (73.3%) and stems (79.9%) peaked when the plants were mature (15 May). In contrast to fibre, the protein content decreased gradually with age. Protein content of the leaves on 28 February was 25%, after which it declined gradually and reached 2.9% at maturity. The calcium content of the leaves was higher than that of the stems and was sufficient to meet ewes' maintenance requirements. The Ca content of leaves during the period from 28 February to 30 March was 1.2% to 1.1%, whereas, the content declined with age and reached the lowest value (0.01%) at maturity. The phosphorus content did not show significant variation. It is concluded that age and environmental conditions may affect the nutritive value of wall barley.