若尔盖高原高寒草甸地表能量交换和蒸散研究

若尔盖高原高寒草甸生态系统是青藏高原能量和水分循环的重要组成部分,但该地区地面水热通量观测数据非常缺乏。本研究基于涡动相关法,于2013年11月1日−2014年10月31日,利用三维超声风温仪和红外开路二氧化碳/水汽分析仪在若尔盖高原一典型高寒草甸开展周年通量观测,以揭示其地表能量交换和蒸散特征及影响因素。结果表明：高寒草甸地表能量通量各组分呈显著的日变化和季节变化特征,净辐射通量、感热通量、潜热通量和土壤热通量的年均值分别为94.5、21.0、51.8和1.2Wm−2。非生长季感热稍占优势,生长季潜热占绝对主导地位,波文比全年平均值为0.70,能量平衡闭合率年平均值为0.77。辐射是感热通量的主要气象影响因子,潜热通量则受温度、辐射和饱和水汽压差共同影响。日蒸散量变化范围为0.12～5.09mmd−1,全年平均值为1.82mmd−1。非生长季蒸散主要受土壤表面导度因子控制,生长季则由辐射主导,土壤和植被表面导度因子为次要影响因素。在季节尺度上,蒸散的变化取决于降水分布,全年降水和蒸散量分别为682.7mm和673.6mm,其中生长季分别占全年总量的84%和82%。6−7月降水匮乏抑制了蒸散,此时土壤储水成为蒸散的主要水源,从全年看,降水基本都以蒸散的方式返回大气。与青藏高原上同类观测研究相比,地表能量通量和蒸散都有相似的季节变化趋势,但观测到的年平均波文比和年蒸散量最大,气温、降水、地表植被等因素的共同作用导致这一结果。研究数据可作为地面验证资料,用于若尔盖地区陆面模式参数化方案的优化和卫星遥感反演资料的校验。     

青海湖2种高寒嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统水热通量比较

基于涡度相关技术,研究了2015年青海湖2种高寒嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统水热通量的特征。结果表明:(1)2015年青海湖高寒藏嵩草和小嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统日平均水汽通量分别为1.74,0.99mm,年水汽通量分别为633.3,362.1mm。(2)青海湖2种高寒嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统感热、潜热和净辐射日变化均呈单峰曲线,感热和潜热月平均日变化最大值出现的时间均晚于净辐射。藏嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统感热月均日变化最大值最大为179.06W/m~2,最小为46.02W/m~2;潜热最大为312.55W/m~2,最小为30.58 W/m~2;小嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统感热月均日变化最大值最大为161.86 W/m~2,最小为31.60 W/m~2;潜热最大为215.44 W/m~2;最小为14.08 W/m~2。(3)通过波文比分析发现,2种高寒嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统生长季能量分配以潜热为主,非生长季小嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统能量分配以感热为主,藏嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统则较为复杂。藏嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统全年能量平衡率为0.82,小嵩草湿草甸湿地生态系统为0.89,增加土壤热通量项能改善能量平衡状况。     

A simple retrieval of ground albedo and vegetation absorptance from MODIS satellite data for parameterisation of global Land-Surface Models

The task of parameterising global Land-Surface Models (LSMs) is rendered difficult by both the limited number of parameters that can be retrieved from eddy-covariance fluxes and the requirement for some physical processes to be modelled in a spatially explicit manner. Fortunately, some of the important biophysical parameters influencing energy exchange can be usefully constrained by satellite measurements of surface reflectance. In this study, we retrieve ground (soil) albedo and vegetation absorptance from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 1-arcdegree albedo product. This information is used to parameterise a revised global simulation of carbon, water and energy exchange at the land-surface. The new biophysical parameters produce significant modifications (5–30%) to predicted net radiation and sensible heat exchange, particularly for the northern sub-tropics and the boreal and northern tundra zones. We infer systematic differences in vegetation absorptance between 5 plant functional types (broadleaf forest, needleleaf forest, C₃ grass, C₄ grass and shrubland). The dispersion in values is fairly moderate within any given plant functional type (PFT), suggesting that a small number of PFTs is sufficient for setting albedo parameters within a global LSM.     

华北平原典型冬小麦农田生态系统能量平衡与闭合研究

准确量化分析地气之间的物质和能量交换对于水资源管理和农业可持续发展是十分重要的。能量平衡闭合是评估观测数据准确性和分析地表能量平衡的一个重要的评价指数。本研究利用开路涡度相关系统和全要素自动气象站对华北平原典型冬小麦农田生态系统2013—2014年度的能量通量及常规气象要素进行了连续观测,分析了冬小麦农田各能量通量的日变化和年变化特征,计算冬小麦在4个生育时期(出苗期、越冬期、拔节期和灌浆期)的能量闭合和波文比。结果表明:在日尺度上,选取的4个生育时期净辐射和各能量分量的日变化趋势均为单峰二次曲线,净辐射、显热通量和潜热通量的峰值出现在12:00—13:00,土壤热通量的峰值出现在14:00—15:00。在年尺度上,净辐射和潜热通量的变化趋势较为一致,均在越冬期达到最低值114.51 W·m~(-2)和13.47 W·m~(-2),而在灌浆期达到最大值327.02 W·m~(-2)和116.56 W·m~(-2)。选取的4个生育时期的代表性观测日期能量闭合良好,能量闭合率分别为0.49、0.77、0.81和0.76。4个生育时期内波文比值日变化趋势均呈倒"U"型,出苗期波文比在14:00达到最大值2.12;越冬期、拔节期和灌浆期在10:00左右达到最大值,分别为1.48、0.31和0.58。本文的定量化结果可为华北平原农田生态系统水热通量等研究提供依据。     

Estimating energy balance fluxes above a boreal forest from radiometric temperature observations

The great areal extent of boreal forests confers these ecosystems potential to impact on the global surface-atmosphere energy exchange. A modelling approach, based on a simplified two-source energy balance model, was proposed to estimate energy balance fluxes above boreal forests using thermal infrared measurements. Half-hourly data from the Solar-Induced Fluorescence Experiment, carried out in a Finnish boreal forest, was used to evaluate the performance of the model. Energy balance closure, determined by linear regression, found all fluxes to underestimate available energy by 9% (r² = 0.94). Significance in the energy balance of the heat storage in the air and in the soil terms was also analyzed. Canopy temperatures, measured by a CIMEL Electronique CE 312 radiometer, together with ancillary meteorological variables and vegetation characteristics, were used to run the model. Comparison with ground measurements showed errors lower than ±15 W m^?2 for the retrieval of net radiation, soil heat flux and storage heat flux, and about ±50 W m^?2 for the sensible and latent heat fluxes. A sensitivity analysis of the approach to typical operational uncertainties in the required inputs was conducted showing the necessity of accurate measurements of the target radiometric surface temperature.     

Carbon dioxide and energy flux partitioning between the understorey and the overstorey of a maritime pine forest during a year with reduced soil water availability

Carbon dioxide, water vapour and energy fluxes were measured above and within a maritime pine forest during an atypical year with long-lasting reduced soil water availability. Energy balance closure was adequately good at both levels. As compared with what is usually observed at this site the ecosystem dissipated less energy via latent heat flux and more via sensible heat flux. The understorey canopy was responsible for a variable, significant component of the whole canopy fluxes of water vapour and carbon dioxide. The annual contribution of the understorey was 38% (154 mm) of the overall evaporation (399 mm) and 32% (89 mm) of the overall sensible heat flux (274 mm). The participation of the understorey reached 45% of the overall evaporation and 30% of the daytime overall assimilation during significant soil water deficit periods in summertime. Even during winter, understorey photosynthesis was consistent as it compensated soil and understorey respiration. The ecosystem behaved as a sink of carbon, with a negative annual carbon budget (−57 g C m⁻²). However, due to high soil water deficit, the annual ecosystem GPP was 40% less than usually observed at this site. This budget resulted from a sink of −131 g C m⁻² for the overstorey and a source of +74 g C m⁻² for the understorey. Moreover, on an annual basis the overstorey layer contributed to almost two-thirds of the ecosystem respiration. Finally, the effect of long-lasting soil water deficit on the maritime pine forest was found more important than the effect of the heat wave and drought of summer 2003.     

漓江上游山区复杂地形水热通量的时空变化规律

为了估算漓江上游农林经济的发展对决定地表微气候环境的水热通量的影响,计算山区复杂地形影响下的地表太阳辐射以改进SEBAL模型,提出归一化水热通量使不同时相具有可比性,对漓江上游1989-2006年5景TM/ETM卫星图像利用改进模型反演水热通量。结果表明,在空间上随植被覆盖度的增加,显热通量降低而潜热通量增加,植被覆盖度在0.2～0.7时的影响非常显著。1989-2000年植被覆盖度均值明显降低,而2000-2006年逐渐上升,导致波文比(显热与潜热比)均值明显升高然后逐渐降低,归一化潜热数值较高的像元比例减少然后增加,归一化显热数值较高的像元比例增加然后减少。尽管在2006年植被覆盖度均值接近于1989年,但波文比均值仍明显高于1989年。研究区经济林、旱地农作物面积的增加,阔叶林面积减少,水源林的减少与退化,导致了显热与潜热比平均值的升高。     

Coupled land-atmosphere modeling of the effects of shrub encroachment on nighttime temperatures

Changes in vegetation cover affect the interactions between the land surface and the overlying atmosphere with important impacts on surface energy balance and microclimate conditions. A major ongoing change in vegetation cover has been observed in dryland regions around the world, where desert shrubs are encroaching into arid grasslands. However, the impact of shrub encroachment on local climate has not been investigated. We used a mesoscale model coupled with a Land Surface Model to simulate the effects of shrub encroachment on nighttime temperatures. These effects can have an important effect on the establishment of shrubs and need to be represented well by land surface parameterization schemes that are also used in long-term climate simulations. Idealized 2-dimensional simulations were conducted with vegetation types corresponding to shrubland and grassland typical of the Northern Chihuahuan Desert. Simulated surface energy and radiation fluxes and near-ground air temperature were analyzed and compared with observations. Results show a good comparison between the simulations and observations as long as vegetation parameters are adjusted in the model to be in better agreement with the observed parameters. The sensitivity of the nighttime air temperatures to green vegetation fraction, albedo, emissivity and roughness length is investigated. The results indicate that the green vegetation fraction is the key factor that causes the higher nighttime temperature in shrubland than in adjacent grassland, mainly by its effects on soil surface insulation, soil thermal diffusivity, and therefore on ground heat fluxes.     

Surface heterogeneity and the spatial variation of fluxes

An integral scale of surface heterogeneity is defined in terms of the structure function of surface properties (surface temperature and albedo) and related to flux measurements taken during the NOPEX experiment. The spatial variation of the sensible and latent heat fluxes is shown to be related to this structure function. Although the surface heterogeneity clearly influences the spatial variation of the fluxes, the variance of the fluxes scales under mixed layer scaling and not the heterogeneity of the underlying surface.     

基于集合卡尔曼滤波的地表水热通量同化研究

地表水热通量是研究地表能量转换与水文过程中的重要参数,本文借助通用陆面模式CLM3.0(Community Land Model3.0)为动力框架,利用集合卡尔曼滤波作为同化算法构建单站点的地表水热通量同化系统,并利用Ameriflux通量观测网上Chestnut Ridge、ARM SGP Main以及Tonzi Ranch三个站点的通量观测数据进行直接同化地表水热通量试验。结果表明,在三种不同下垫面下,RMSE直接同化水热通量能够很好地改善地表总水热通量的估算效果。经过同化通量观测值,模式输出的通量值的RMSE均有减小。在代表农田下垫面的ARM SGP Main站,感热通量的RMSE由67.49W/m2下降至14.07W/m2,潜热通量的RMSE由70.07W/m2下降至14.35W/m2;在代表森林下垫面的Chestnut Ridge站,感热通量的RMSE由82.56W/m2下降至48.56W/m2,潜热通量的RMSE由42.99W/m2下降至38.92W/m2;在代表草地下垫面的Tonzi Ranch站,感热通量的RMSE由62.99W/m2下降至17.85W/m2,潜热通量的RMSE由44.76W/m2下降至36.01W/m2。相对于通过同化地表温度和湿度间接改善地表水热通量预报的研究结果,直接同化地表水热通量的结果好于前者。但值得注意的是,针对集合同化方法,不同初始场误差、观测误差和大气强迫数据误差的扰动强度都会对同化结果造成影响。从同化系统对3种误差的敏感性分析结果来看:观测误差的影响最大且减小观测误差能够减小同化后的RMSE值,估计观测误差的方法是否合理会直接影响同化结果的好坏;初始场误差对同化后的RMSE值影响最小;另外,增加大气强迫数据误差和初始场误差能减小同化后的RMSE值。     

Volatile and water-soluble inhibitors of nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in a ponderosa pine ecosystem

Summary Bioassay experiments were performed to test for inhibition of the processes of nitrogen mineralization and nitrification by organics in the forest floor of a ponderosa pine ecosystem. Water-extractable organics in the forest floor were tested by applying filtered extracts to the assay soil. The extract decreased nitrate production by 17.0% and decreased net mineralization by 4.1%. Inhibition by volatile organics was tested by placing vials containing forest floor or selected terpenoids of ponderosa pine in sealed jars containing the assay soil. Nitrate production was inhibited by 87.4% and 100%, and net nitrogen mineralization was inhibited by 73.3% and 67.7% in the jars with forest floor and terpenoids, respectively. Organics which are partially water-soluble and are volatile (such as terpenoids) would be very effective inhibitors of nitrogen cycling processes.     

地表臭氧浓度升高对麦田水热通量的影响

臭氧(O₃)浓度升高危害小麦生长,现有研究尚不清楚推广新的小麦品种能否减缓O₃对籽粒产量、农田蒸散和水分利用效率的负面效应,且研究O₃浓度升高对麦田水分利用效率的影响对农业用水管理具有重要意义。本研究利用完全开放式O₃浓度升高平台（O₃-FACE）,通过连续观测农田小气候特征,结合能量平衡法分析O₃浓度升高对麦田水热通量、小麦籽粒产量和田间水分利用效率的影响。结果表明：O₃浓度升高显著降低了开花后第32天小麦旗叶的叶绿素含量,降低了乳熟–成熟期的麦田潜热通量平均值和正午峰值,但影响幅度较小。O₃浓度升高对麦田平均水热通量及其分配无显著影响,也未影响籽粒产量、产量组成和田间水分利用效率。不同于10年前江淮地区主推的扬辐麦2号、烟农19和嘉兴002等品种,当前推广的农麦88表现出极强的O₃抗性。在O₃浓度不断升高背景下,种植农麦88有助于减缓O₃浓度升高对田间蒸散和水分利用效率的影响。     

三江平原稻田能量通量研究

基于三江平原稻田2005~2007年5~10月涡度相关通量观测数据, 分析了该区稻田能量通量的日变化、季节变化和能量分配特征以及能量平衡状况。结果表明: 三江平原稻田净辐射和潜热通量日变化均表现为明显的单峰特征, 感热通量日变化在水稻发育进入成熟期后才较明显, 而土壤热通量在水稻整个发育期内日变化特征都不明显。稻田净辐射季节变化特征显著, 6月下旬至7月上旬达到最大值18~20 MJ·m^-2·d^-1。潜热通量季节变化与净辐射同步, 最大值为13~19 MJ·m^-2·d^-1。相比之下感热通量较小, 观测期间变化于-3.90~ 3.94 MJ·m^-2·d^-1, 且没有明显的季节变化。5~10月土壤热通量呈下降趋势, 变化于-2.67~3.62 MJ·m^-2·d^-1。三江平原地区稻田能量分配特征明显, 潜热通量占净辐射的比例(LE/Rn) 5~10月平均值为0.67, 表明净辐射大部分以潜热通量形式所消耗, 但生长旺季LE/Rn略大于生长季初期和末期。感热通量占净辐射的比例(Hs/Rn)的季节变化特征与LE/Rn比值相反, 观测期间平均值为0.10。这导致波文比在水稻生长旺季较小而在初期和末期较大。5~10月土壤热通量占净辐射的比例(G/Rn)呈逐渐下降趋势, 其月平均值由5月的0.14下降到10月的-0.08。线性回归法和能量平衡比率均表明三江平原稻田能量明显不闭合, 2005、2006年5~10月能量不闭合度分别为22%和16%, 而2007年能量“过闭合”, 能量平衡比率平均值为1.07。     

蓄能型振荡热管太阳能集热器的热性能

太阳能集热器是太阳能热泵系统的核心部件.该文设计了一种蓄能型振荡热管太阳能集热器,将其应用于蓄能型太阳能热泵系统中,可根据太阳辐射强度切换工作模式,实现太阳能分季节全天候利用,能提高系统热力性能.搭建了蓄能型振荡热管太阳能集热器热性能测试试验台,对振荡热管换热器内充灌不同工质(R134a、乙醇/水、丙酮/水)、集热管内分别利用空气显热蓄能或者石蜡潜热蓄能的蓄能型振荡热管太阳能集热器在白天和夜间工况下的热性能开展了试验研究.结果表明:振荡热管换热器内充灌R134a的集热器,白天工况下集热效率最高,平均集热效率在0.45以上,利用石蜡蓄热时最高达到了0.90;日有用得热量最大,最低可达到7.14 MJ/(m2·d);夜间工况下供热水水温最高.无论利用空气和石蜡蓄能,白天工况下集热器瞬时集热效率均与太阳辐射强度的变化规律相反.真空管内利用石蜡蓄能的蓄能型振荡热管太阳能集热器,阴雨天其集热效率远高于利用空气蓄能的集热器,平均提高64.0％,夜间供水水温均能保持在50℃以上,高于利用空气蓄热的集热器.该研究可为蓄能型太阳能热泵的推广应用提供参考依据.     

Modelling long-term transpiration measurments from grassland in southern England

Observations of latent heat, sensible heat and momentum flux from eddy correlation equipment are presented, along with approximately weekly measurements of soil moisture content. The measurements were made over a pasture field in the south of England for 3 years, covering two dry years, 1995 and 1996 and a more normal year, 1997. The data show that, overall, approximately 80% of the measured net radiation was used for evaporation. During July and August of the two dry years, soil moisture deficits of over 150 mm developed within the top 1400 mm, and at these deficits the evaporation was reduced. During the summer months, overall between 71 and 76% of the net radiation was used for evaporation. During the winter months, the latent heat flux exceeded the net incoming radiation. An energy closure better than 10% suggests that the measurements were well founded. The surrounding trees may, however, have influenced the momentum exchange; the estimated roughness length of 38 mm is considerably more than the commonly accepted 10% of vegetation height.This extensive dataset provides an excellent test for the current UK Meteorological Office Surface Energy Scheme (MOSES) when applied to this site, the results of which are presented here. In its unoptimised form, the model can explain 72% of the variance of the hourly evaporative flux data, and with excellent agreement with the soil moisture measurements. Optimisation can improve the model fit, but only up to a maximum of 76%. The largest remaining errors occur during mid-summer when high temperatures, vapour pressure deficits and soil moisture deficits occur.     

Modelling energy and CO2 fluxes with an interactive vegetation land surface model-Evaluation at high and middle latitudes

We developed ISBA-CC, a new version of the ISBA land surface model, to represent the fluxes and reservoirs of the terrestrial carbon cycle. The simulated latent heat flux, sensible heat flux and net ecosystem exchange are validated against in-situ measurements at 26 sites of the FLUXNET network, located at temperate and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. Overall, ISBA-CC captures well the temporal variations of the fluxes, from the diurnal to the seasonal and the inter-annual scales. The best results are obtained for deciduous broadleaf and needle leaf forests, while the worst are found for agricultural sites, suggesting the need to take into account agricultural practices in order to better simulate both the energy fluxes and the net carbon flux. The ranking of the sites in terms of scores is consistent for the different fluxes. We show that taking into account the response of heterotrophic respiration to soil moisture allows a better representation of the variations of the net ecosystem exchange along with soil water content. ISBA-CC also compares favourably with other terrestrial ecosystem models. All these results show that the model matches the observed variability driven by the climate and can be used to assess the response of the terrestrial biosphere to future climate changes.     

Evaporation and energy balance for bare and stubble covered soil

Daily solar, reflected, and net radiation, air and dew-point temperature, wind speed, and soil heat flux were compared with daily evaporation for a bare and stubble covered soil surface for 45 days during spring 1984. Surface temperatures and radiation fluxes were monitored every 15 min from sunrise to sunset on five of these days. Daily net radiation was always greater for the bare soil surface, averaging 11 443 kJ m⁻² compared to 10 483 kJ m⁻² for the stubble covered soil. Temperature of the bare soil surface was always greater than the stubble covered surface except for overcast conditions with wet surfaces when they were about equal. Maximum differences were 14.5°C. Evaporation was always greater from the bare surface until it was dry (<8% water). Evaporation was then greater from the stubble covered surface because of its greater available water. There was no correlation between daily evaporation from either surface and the net or solar radiation. Daily evaporation was correlated only with the number of days after precipitation and with wind speed. Reduced evaporation from the stubble covered soil was related to reduced wind speed and lower surface temperatures in the stubble.     

三江平原大豆田蒸散特征及能量平衡研究

试验研究三江平原大豆田蒸散规律、水分利用效率及辐射收支和能量平衡研究结果表明 ,三江平原 5～ 9月份农田蒸散力基本与降雨量持平 ,正常年份作物生育期内降雨量能满足农田蒸散量的需求 ,大豆田蒸散量变化与大豆叶面积指数的变化呈相关性。大豆生育期内净辐射通量占总辐射的比例有所变化 ,播种～苗后期其比值约为 50 %左右 ,开花～结荚期约为 60 % ,灌浆～收获期约为 55%。大豆田能量平衡具有明显日变化与季节变化特征 ,净辐射收入的 90 %以上用于潜热消耗 ,而用于感热通量与土壤热通量的消耗则极少 ,整个生长季分别低于1.5%和 10 %。     

湄公河流域农业干旱主要影响因素分析和预估

以湄公河流域作为模拟试验区域,采用区域气候模式RegCM3为模拟工具,单向嵌套全球海气耦合模式ECHAM5/MPI-OM当代(1980-2009年)和SRES A1B情景下未来(2010-2039年)的输出结果,以根系层土壤含水量为代表性指标,对试验区月尺度农业干旱进行了预估。基于地表能量平衡,系统分析了降水、蒸发、地表温度等农业干旱主要影响因素与区域气候模式模拟的大气环流、地表感热通量、地表潜热通量、地表净通量之间的联系和变化规律,从气陆间能量和水汽通量平衡角度,对农业干旱发生机理进行了初步识别。预估结果表明:未来春末(6月)和秋末(10月)湄公河流域温度增加、土壤含水量减少较为明显;同时,在这个时段试验区蒸发旺盛和降水减少的趋势,有可能导致湄公河流域局部地区农业干旱的发生。     

Timber harvesting alters soil carbon mineralization and microbial community structure in coniferous forests

Timber harvesting influences both above and belowground ecosystem nutrient dynamics. Impact of timber harvesting on soil organic matter (SOM) mineralization and microbial community structure was evaluated in two coniferous forest species, ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta). Management of ponderosa pine forests, particularly even-aged stand practices, increased the loss of CO₂-C and hence reduced SOM storage potential. Changes in soil microbial community structure were more pronounced in ponderosa pine uneven-aged and heavy harvest stands and in lodgepole pine even-aged stand as compared to their respective unmanaged stands. Harvesting of trees had a negative impact on SOM mineralization and soil microbial community structure in both coniferous forests, potentially reducing coniferous forest C storage potential.