The cone index is a weak predictor of soil disturbance on forest soils of the Western Carpathians

Soil compaction is one of the primary causes of soil degradation. Predicting the soil disturbance by assessing the cone index of the soil is becoming popular, due to the simplicity of measuring it with a cone penetrometer. This paper is focused on assessing, whether the cone index is a suitable predictor of soil compaction on cambisols, luvisols, and rendzic leptosols. Overall, we measured penetration resistance, bulk density, moisture content, and rut depth on 250 locations in forests of the Western Carpatians. The mean penetration resistance of the undisturbed soil was 4.33 and 4.41 MPa in the ruts of the skid trails; the mean cone index of the undisturbed soil was 5.46 MPa; the mean bulk density of undisturbed soil was 0.95 g cm^?3; the mean moisture content of the undisturbed soil was 24%; the mean rut depth was 6 cm, and the maximal rut depth was 38 cm. Spearman’s correlation analysis showed that the relationship between the mean rut depth and the cone index was statistically insignificant, and the relationship between the maximal rut depth and the cone index was, though significant, weak (R = ?0.20).     

Changes of key soil parameters five years after forest harvesting suggest slow regeneration of disturbed soil

Forest soil is susceptible to changes in its top layers. These changes occur during ground-based forest harvesting and the rate of soil regeneration depends on the environmental conditions and the extent of the disturbance. This paper was focused on analyzing the changes of soil characteristics such as the depth of the erosion profile, bulk density of soil, its penetration resistance, and the subsurface concentration of CO₂ in soils five years after forest harvesting. The study took place in four forest stands harvested by a skidder and a harvester/forwarder combination. Statistical analyses did not prove significant changes of the characteristics of the disturbed soil after the five-year period without machine traffic: the profile depth did not change significantly, except for one stand, where the ruts became deeper. Other characteristics, such as the bulk density of soil also did not show any significant regeneration (1.29–1.36 g cm^?3 in the rut; initial measurements versus 1.34–1.38 g cm^?3 in the rut; repeated measurements). The penetration resistance, as well as the subsurface CO₂ concentration, were variable, and the results inconclusive. Our results suggest that five years was not enough time for soil to regenerate significantly after being disturbed by ground-based machinery.     

How does organic matter affect the physical and mechanical properties of forest soil?

Determining the physical and mechanical properties of soil and its behavior for engineering projects is essential for road construction operations. One of the most important principles in forest road construction, which is usually neglected, is to avoid mixing organic matter with road materials during excavation and embankment construction. The current study aimed to assess the influence of organic matter on the physical properties and mechanical behaviors of forest soil and to analyze the relation between the amount of organic matter and the behavior of forest soil as road material. A typical soil sample from the study area was collected beside a newly constructed roadbed. The soil was mixed with different percentages of organic matter(control treatment, 5, 10, and 15% by mass) and different tests including Atterberg limits, standard compaction, and California bearing ratio(CBR) tests were conducted on these different soil mixtures. The results showed that soil plasticity increased linearly with increasing organic matter.Increasing the organic matter from 0%(control) to 15%resulted in an increase of 11.64% of the plastic limit and 15.22% of the liquid limit after drying at 110 ℃. Also,increasing the organic matter content reduced the soil maximum dry density and increased the optimum moisture content. Increasing the organic matter from 0 to 15% resulted in an increase of 11.0% of the optimum moisture content and a decrease of 0.29 g/cm~3 of the maximum dry density. Organic matter decreased the CBR, which is used as the index of road strength. Adding 15% organic matter to the soil resulted in a decrease of the CBR from 15.72 to 4.75%. There was a significant difference between the two drying temperatures(60 and 110 ℃) for the same organic matter mixtures with lower water content values after drying at 60 ℃. The results revealed the adverse influence of organic matter on soil engineering properties and showed the importance of organic matter removal before excavation and fill construction.     

Characteristic site disturbance due to harvesting and extraction machinery traffic on sensitive forest sites with peat soils

The effects of wood harvesting and extraction machinery traffic on sensitive forest sites with peat soils were characterised with the objective of quantifying the threshold levels beyond which significant site impacts (compaction and rutting) would occur. The treatments involved running the machines in selected extraction racks (i.e., 3 m wide machine routes) while conducting normal wood thinning and extraction operations comprising one and two passes by the harvester and the forwarder with full payload, respectively. Soil disturbance thresholds were established by testing the level of significance of the difference in induced soil damage and compaction before and after machine traffic treatments. For volumetric soil water content lying between 10.0 and 14.9%, threshold cone penetration resistance levels for two 600/55–30.5 tyres were found to range from 594 to 640 kPa for deep-raised peat soil with initial strength lying between 524 and 581 kPa. In general, the proportion of the total rut depth data in each rack that exceeded the threshold level of 21.5 cm was about 5%. The threshold value corresponds to sinkage equivalent to 15% of the overall wheel diameter of the harvester, above which machine mobility would be hampered considerably. In addition, after harvester traffic the mean rut depth per unit rack length was 10.2×10⁻² cm/m, and it ranged from 0.7 to 24.7×10⁻² cm/m.     

Changes in microclimate after stand conversion in two northern hardwood stands

Changes in air temperature, soil temperature, and soil moisture were monitored for 5 years in two northern hardwood stands after whole-tree harvesting and conversion to red pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.) plantations. Soil temperatures at a depth of 5 cm and maximum air temperatures 2 m above the soil surface were increased 5–25% after stand conversion. Soil moisture content at a depth of 5 cm was increased by 10–20% in one stand but not in the other. Differences in stand, soil, and topographical characteristics between the two stands did not have any apparent effect on the magnitude of air or soil temperature changes after stand conversion. However, higher initial stand density and soil water holding capacity appeared to be related to increased soil moisture content at one of the sites. The increased soil temperatures after conversion were not only a result of the removal of the northern hardwood canopy but also the removal and redistribution of the forest floor caused by whole-tree harvesting. Five years after stand conversion air temperature, soil temperature, and soil moisture showed no evidence of recovering from initial post-harvest levels.     

黄土高原三种类型复合农林业边界地区土壤水分的时空变化(英文)

黄土高原山坡上的复合农林业是一种普遍存在的景色,在这里土壤的水分是植物生长和发展的限制因素。文中研究了三种类型复合农林业边界(林-牧地、林-耕地和防护林-耕地)下水分的时空特性。研究结果表明,从土地表面到110cm处土壤的水分含量随着土壤深度的增加而减少。在雨季(7-9月)、干旱季(5-6月)和春季(3-4月),土壤的水分含量在三种边界下变化非常显著。在三种边界类型的不同土壤层下,土壤水分的水平分布呈现出线性、波形、勺形或是"W"形不同的形式。通过方差分析和多重比较估计除了不同边界类型下土壤水分影响域(DEI)。在干旱季节,在0-10cm的土壤层的DEI为0.4H(H为平均树高),该数据从牧地或耕地下的0.2H到林-牧地、林-耕地下的0.2H和防护林-耕地下0.7H(从耕地的0.2H到防护林的0.5H)。在雨季,在0-110cm土壤深度三种边界下的DEI为0.7H。研究结果表明,特别在黄土高原的恢复退化土地区域为了保持土壤的水分在土地管理上复合农林业类型应该谨慎选取。     

Emulating natural disturbances: the role of silviculture in creating even-aged and complex structures in the black spruce boreal forest of eastern North America

Ecosystem-based forest management is based on the principle of emulating regional natural disturbance regimes with forest management. An interesting area for a case study of the potential of ecosystem-based forest management is the boreal forest of north-western Québec and north-eastern Ontario, where the disturbance regime creates a mosaic of stands with both complex and simple structures. Old-growth stands of this region have multi-storied, open structures, thick soil organic layers, and are unproductive, while young post-fire stands established following severe fires that consumed most of the organic soil show dense and even-sized/aged structures and are more productive. Current forest management emulates the effects of low severity fires, which only partially consume the organic layers, and could lead to unproductive even-aged stands. The natural disturbance and forest management regimes differ in such a way that both young productive and old-growth forests could ultimately be under-represented on the landscape under a fully regulated forest management regime. Two major challenges for ecosystem-based forest management of this region are thus to: (1) maintain complex structures associated with old-growth forests, and (2) promote the establishment of productive post-harvest stands, while at the same time maintaining harvested volume. We discuss different silvicultural approaches that offer solutions to these challenges, namely the use of (1) partial harvesting to create or maintain complex structures typical of old-growth stands, and (2) site preparation techniques to emulate severe soil burns and create productive post-harvest stands. A similar approach could be applied to any region where the natural disturbance regime creates a landscape where both even-aged stands established after stand-replacing disturbances and irregular old-growth stands created by smaller scale disturbances are significant.     

晋西北不同植被类型土壤水分空间分异

采用土钻法对晋西北朔州地区杨树林、柳树林、草地3种植被类型0~600 cm土层土壤水分动态进行研究。结果表明:土壤平均含水量表现为草地杨树林地柳树林地。草地土壤平均含水量比杨树林地高1.25%,比柳树林地高1.9%。随着土壤深度的增加,土壤含水量先减小后上下波动,然后趋于稳定。0~100cm土层范围内,土壤水分变异系数大小为草地柳树林地杨树林地;在200~300 cm、400~500 cm土层范围内,变异系数表现为柳树林地草地杨树林地;300~400 cm、500~600 cm土层范围内,变异系数大小为柳树林地杨树林地草地。越靠近表层,土壤干化现象越严重,柳树林地干化现象最明显,含水量变化最剧烈,杨树林地次之,草地最稳定。     

Estimating the production and mortality of fine roots using minirhizotrons in a <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus densiflora</Emphasis> forest in Gwangneung,Korea

The aim of this study was to estimate fine root production (FP) and fine root mortality (FM) at 0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm soil depths using minirhizotrons in a 75-year-old Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc. forest located in Gwangneung, Korea. We developed the conversion factors (frame cm^?2) of three soil depths (0.158 for 0–10 cm, 0.120 for 10–20 cm, and 0.131 for 20–30 cm) based on soil coring and minirhizotron data. FP and FM were estimated using conversion factors from March 26, 2013 to March 2, 2014. The annual FP and FM values at the 0–30 cm soil depth were 3200.2 and 2271.5 kg ha^?1 yr ^?1, respectively. The FP estimate accounted for approximately 17 % of the total net primary production at the study site. FP was highest in summer (July 31–September 26), and FM was highest in autumn (September 27–November 29). FP was positively correlated with seasonal change in soil temperature, while FM was not related to that change. The seasonality of FP and FM might be linked to above-ground photosynthetic activity. Both FP and FM at the 0–10 cm depth were significantly higher than at 10–20 and 20–30 cm depths, and this resulted from the decrease in nutrient availability with increasing soil depth. The minirhizotron approach and conversion factors developed in this study will enable fast and accurate estimation of the fine root dynamics in P. densiflora forest ecosystems.     

间伐对祁连山青海云杉人工林土壤水分的影响

利用EM50土壤水分监测仪,在样地尺度上,测定了祁连山青海云杉天然林、无间伐和间伐强度为20%的人工林地生长季节的土壤水分,对比分析间伐对人工林土壤水分的影响。结果表明:未间伐人工林林地表层(10 cm)土壤含水量显著高于间伐强度为20%的人工林和天然林,间伐导致了人工林林地表层土壤水分下降;而对于深层土壤含水量而言,间伐措施又显著提高了深层60 cm处的土壤含水量。与天然林地土壤含水量相比,无间伐人工林深层60 cm和80 cm处的土壤体积含水量仅为天然林的49.7%和52.1%,深层土壤已经出现旱化现象,间伐措施能够减缓这种旱化现象。     

Tree effects on the chemical topsoil features of oak, beech and pine forests

We aimed to study tree effects on the chemical properties of forest soils. We compared soil features of three types of forest ecosystems, each with four stands (replicates): beech forests (Fagus sylvatica), oak forests (dominated by Quercus pyrenaica) and pine plantations (Pinus sylvestris). Five samples from the top 10 cm of soil were taken per stand, from which pH, organic matter content (O.M.), total nitrogen (N) and available calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), potassium (K⁺) and sodium (Na⁺) were determined. Litter layer depth was measured at each soil sampling point. We also measured tree density and crown diameters at each stand. Our results indicated that soil samples from the four pine plantation stands were more similar while oak and beech stands were characterised by great variability in terms of soil properties and leaf litter depth. Although the identity of the dominant tree species significantly influenced several topsoil chemical properties (increase in pH and available cations in oak forests and higher organic matter and total nitrogen in beech and pine ecosystems), there were other important factors affecting soil features that may be taken under consideration. Differences between soil properties of the three types of forest ecosystems were mainly related to the characteristics of the litter layer and less related to the tree layer structure. Finally, the establishment of pine plantations in naturally deciduous tree areas made the topsoil features more homogeneous.     

土壤水分梯度对阔叶红松林结构的影响

2002年8月,在吉林省白河林业局红石林场(12755E,4230N),沿着一个山坡设置了一个长宽为112m8m、包含14个样方的样带。调查了群落结构、0-10cm和10-20cm的土壤含水量、枯落物现存量及其C、N、P含量,主要树种的叶片和枝条的C、N、P含量。沿着山坡的不同位置土壤含水量的不同导致阔叶红松林的群落结构发生变化。蒙古栎的比例随着土壤含水量的下降而逐渐升高,而其他主要阔叶树种则逐渐减少乃至消失。枯落物的水分变化趋势与土壤一致。在不同坡位枯落物的分解状况不同,干重差异显著。坡下枯落物含量较坡上的丰富,部分原因在于群落结构的变化。水分和养分含量的变化影响了枯落物的成分、降解及其养分的释放,进一步影响了林木的生长速度和林分结构并最终影响整个生态系统。图7表2参14。     

Soil changes after traffic with a tracked and a wheeled forest machine: a case study on a silt loam in Sweden

Alterations to some soil physical parameters were evaluatedafter passes by a tracked forest machine and a wheeled one ofequal mass (about 20 000 kg). Measurements were made after arange of machine passes, with a maximum of eight. The measuredsoil physical parameters were dry bulk density, penetrationresistance, intrinsic air permeability, saturated hydraulicconductivity, porosity and pore-size distribution. Rut depthwas also measured. Although the wheeled machine caused deeper ruts than the trackedone, alterations caused by the two machines to the measuredsoil parameters were similar, except in the uppermost 5–10cm. The wheeled machine caused a decrease in bulk density at5 cm depth, whereas the tracked machine caused an increase,despite its lower ground pressure.     

Importance of soil extractable phosphorus distribution for mature Norway spruce nutrition and productivity

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for forest growth. In this study, we assessed the impact of soil extractable phosphorus using two simple extraction methods on nutrition and productivity of Norway spruce in sixteen mature forest stands on different bedrocks and soils in Bavaria, Southern Germany. Representative trees were sampled for needles, twigs, branches, stem bark, and stem wood. Total phosphorus content in the tree parts and soil phosphorus stock extractable with citric acid and sodium bicarbonate up to a soil depth of 80 cm were determined. We found that easily soil extractable phosphorus is a suitable indicator for estimating phosphorus uptake and stand productivity in Norway spruce. In contrast, organic layer phosphorus showed no significant correlation with aboveground biomass phosphorus contents. In the biomass, the highest phosphorus contents were measured in young needles and twigs, but the highest correlation with soil phosphorus was detected for phosphorus contents in needles and bark. The stock of phosphorus extracted by citric acid down to 40 cm soil depth revealed the best correlation with phosphorus in needles and bark. Therefore, as a supplemental or alternative method to needle analysis, our study suggests the use of phosphorus contents in stem bark to evaluate tree phosphorus nutrition. These results highlight the suitability of the citric acid soil extraction method to characterize plant available phosphorus in Norway spruce ecosystems.     

晋西北黄土丘陵区4种植被类型土壤水分含量的变化特征研究

不同植被类型对于陆地生态系统的水分循环具有重要的调节作用。以晋西北黄土丘陵区偏关县境内的小叶杨林地、柠条林地、草地和撂荒地4种植被类型为研究对象,采用土钻法分别测定0～600cm不同土层的土壤水分含量,分析了晋西北不同植被类型的土壤水分含量的垂直分布特征及4种植被含水量的差异比较。结果表明：（1）在0—600cm土层中,平均土壤水分含量因植被类型不同表现显著差异（P〈0．05）,依次表现为小叶杨〉草地〉撂荒地〉柠条;（2）在0—600cm土层中,土壤水分含量随着土层深度的增加呈现先逐渐降低后趋于稳定的趋势,且同一植被类型不同土层深度间土壤水分含量差异显著（P〈0．05）,同一土层不同植被类型间的土壤水分含量也有显著差异（P〈0．05）;（3）研究区土壤剖面可分为易变层（0～100cm）、活跃层（100～200cm）、次活跃层（200—300em）和相对稳定层（300—600em）。在晋西北黄土丘陵区植被恢复中,应根据本区域土壤水分变化特点,选择适宜的植物种类,采取乔一草或乔一灌一草相结合的植被配置模式,以减少该区域土壤水分的过度消耗,这对于改善当地植被的生态效益具有重要意义。     

How much carbon can the Siberian boreal taiga store: a case study of partitioning among the above-ground and soil pools

In the context of global carbon cycle management, accurate knowledge of carbon content in forests is a relevant issue in contemporary forest ecology. We measured the above-ground and soil carbon pools in the darkconiferous boreal taiga. We compared measured carbon pools to those calculated from the forest inventory records containing volume stock and species composition data. The inventory data heavily underestimated the pools in the study area(Stolby State Nature Reserve, central Krasnoyarsk Territory, Russian Federation). The carbon pool estimated from the forest inventory data varied from 25(t ha-1)(low-density stands) to 73(t ha-1)(highly stocked stands). Our estimates ranged from 59(t ha-1)(lowdensity stands) to 147(t ha-1)(highly stocked stands). Our values included living trees, standing deadwood, living cover, brushwood and litter. We found that the proportion of biomass carbon(living trees): soil carbon varied from99:1 to 8:2 for fully stocked and low-density forest stands,respectively. This contradicts the common understanding that the biomass in the boreal forests represents only16–20 % of the total carbon pool, with the balance being the soil carbon pool.     

Assessing water use and soil water balance of planted native tree species under strong water limitations in Northern Chile

Some forest plantations with native species are established in semiarid central Chile to compensate for industrial activities such as those of mining. Two of those operational forest plantations were monitored from age 1 to 3 years-old (2014–2016). Some plant attributes and soil volumetric water content (VWC) were monitored for eight native tree species (Acacia caven, Schinus polygamus, Porlieria chilensis, Lithraea caustica, Quillaja saponaria, Cryptocarya alba, Drimys winteri and Maytenus boaria), and a water balance model fitted to assess plant water use. Site preparation comprised planting holes of 40 cm?×?40 cm by 50 cm in depth dug with a backhoe. Substrate was removed and mixed with compost in proportion 70:30 before mixing it in the planting hole. Planting holes acted as water reservoirs over the study period with soil VWC generally increasing with soil depth being also less variable deeper than in the upper soil layers. The ratio of adaxial (upper leaf side) to abaxial (lower leaf side) stomatal conductance approximately followed a species gradient from xeric to mesic. Irrigation represented about 26% and 53% of the total water input for the sclerophyll and the D. winteri plantation, respectively. At the plant level (0.4?×?0.4 m), soil evaporation and transpiration of D. winteri (273 and 232 mm year^?1, equivalent to 43.7 and 37.1 L plant^?1, respectively) were about twofold the values for the sclerophyllous/malacophyllous plantation (138 and 128 mm year^?1, 22.1 and 20.5 L plant^?1, respectively). We suggest the water budget for the sclerophyll/malacophyllous plantation was tight but feasible to be adjusted while for D. winteri irrigation was excessive, could be drastically reduced, and suppressed altogether if planted in gullies. We believe water balance models and soil moisture content sensors could be used to better plan and manage irrigation frequency and amounts in compensation forest plantations in semiarid central Chile.     

Conversion of tropical moist forest into cacao agroforest: consequences for carbon pools and annual C sequestration

Tropical forests store a large part of the terrestrial carbon and play a key role in the global carbon (C) cycle. In parts of Southeast Asia, conversion of natural forest to cacao agroforestry systems is an important driver of deforestation, resulting in C losses from biomass and soil to the atmosphere. This case study from Sulawesi, Indonesia, compares natural forest with nearby shaded cacao agroforests for all major above and belowground biomass C pools (n = 6 plots) and net primary production (n = 3 plots). Total biomass (above- and belowground to 250 cm soil depth) in the forest (approx. 150 Mg C ha^?1) was more than eight times higher than in the agroforest (19 Mg C ha^?1). Total net primary production (NPP, above- and belowground) was larger in the forest than in the agroforest (approx. 29 vs. 20 Mg dry matter (DM) ha^?1 year^?1), while wood increment was twice as high in the forest (approx. 6 vs. 3 Mg DM ha^?1 year^?1). The SOC pools to 250 cm depth amounted to 134 and 78 Mg C ha^?1 in the forest and agroforest stands, respectively. Replacement of tropical moist forest by cacao agroforest reduces the biomass C pool by approximately 130 Mg C ha^?1; another 50 Mg C ha^?1 may be released from the soil. Further, the replacement of forest by cacao agroforest also results in a 70–80 % decrease of the annual C sequestration potential due to a significantly smaller stem increment.     

Nitrogen in soils beneath 18–65 year old stands of subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests in Laoshan Mountains in Eastern China

Monitoring of soil nitrogen (N) cycling is useful to assess soil quality and to gauge the sustainability of management practices. We studied net N mineralization, nitrification, and soil N availability in the 0 10 cm and 11 30 cm soil horizons in east China during 2006 2007 using an in situ incubation method in four subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest stands aged 18-, 36-, 48-, and 65-years. The proper- ties of surface soil and forest floor varied between stand age classes. C:N ratios of surface soil and forest floor decreased, whereas soil total N and total organic C, available P, and soil microbial biomass N increased with stand age. The mineral N pool was small for the young stand and large for the older stands. NO 3 - -N was less than 30% in all stands. Net rates of N mineralization and nitrification were higher in old stands than in younger stands, and higher in the 0 10 cm than in the 11 30 cm horizon. The differences were significant between old and young stands (p < 0.031) and between soil horizons (p < 0.005). Relative nitrification was somewhat low in all forest stands and declined with stand age. N trans- formation seemed to be controlled by soil moisture, soil microbial bio- mass N, and forest floor C:N ratio. Our results demonstrate that analyses of N cycling can provide insight into the effects of management distur- bances on forest ecosystems.