Common procedures with venomous reptiles.

Venomous reptiles should be handled in a safe and consistent man-ner, even after death. Owners and staff should be warned not to handle the venomous reptile, and one should have emergency protocols in place before the properly bagged and encased reptile is presented. It is important to know what one is treating as well as one's limitations. After being carefully removed from the bag, the venomous reptile may be transferred to a handling container, tubed, or squeezed with the appropriate equipment. The author usually induces injectable or gas anesthesia at this point. Veterinarians who are inexperienced with venomous reptiles should learn how to handle them through a reputable seminar or class before electing to see them in their practice.     

Venomous Snake Restraint and Handling

Venomous snakes may be maintained as captive animals and are commonly exhibited in both zoos and private zoological collections. Veterinarians who treat reptile species may be asked to provide medical care to venomous snakes. The addition of venomous snakes to the practice can be exciting and rewarding. Training and experience handling venomous snakes are required before treating these animals in a veterinary practice. Both training and experience with handling venomous snakes are important not only to protect hospital personnel but the owner and patient as well. Veterinarians who wish to provide care for venomous snakes need to be familiar with the many tools used to make restraint and handling venomous animals as safe as possible.     

Toxicologic information resources for reptile envenomations.

The United States is the largest importer of reptiles in the world, with an estimated 1.5 to 2.0 million households keeping one or more reptiles. Snakes account for about 11% of these imports and it has been estimated that as many as 9% of these reptiles are venomous. Envenomations by nonindigenous venomous species are a rare but often serious medical emergency. Bites may occur during the care and handling of legitimate collections found in universities, zoos, or museums. The other predominant source of exotic envenomation is from amateur collectors participating in importation, propagation, and trade of non-native species. This article provides toxicologic information resources for snake envenomations.     

Nonreproductive surgery in reptiles.

As reptiles have gained popularity as pets, veterinarians are more frequently called on to perform surgical procedures on these pets. Veterinarians must have a basic understanding of the anatomic and physiologic differences between reptilian and mammalian companion animals. This article reviews some basic points about reptilian anatomy and physiology that are important to consider when performing surgery on reptilian patients. This article covers approaches to the coelomic cavity in the different groups of reptiles and some basic concepts regarding surgery on different, nonreproductive systems in these reptiles.     

Evaluation of the use of anesthesia and analgesia in reptiles

OBJECTIVE: To determine anesthetic techniques and the drugs used to provide anesthesia and analgesia to reptiles. DESIGN: Mail-out questionnaire. SAMPLE POPULATION: 367 members of the Association of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians. PROCEDURE: 1,091 members listed in the 2002 directory of the Association of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding anesthesia and analgesia. RESULTS: 367 of 1,091 (33.6%) individuals completed the questionnaire; 88.8% used inhalants (particularly isoflurane) for anesthesia, and ketamine, propofol, and butorphanol were the most commonly used injectable agents. Intubation, fluids, and having a dedicated anesthetist were most commonly used for patient support, and pulse oximetry and Doppler ultrasonography were most commonly used for monitoring. Respiratory depression, difficulty monitoring anesthetic depth, prolonged recovery, and hypothermia were the most frequent complications. Nearly all respondents believed that reptiles feel pain, but analgesics were used infrequently for many reasons. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Providing anesthesia in reptiles is difficult, especially regarding anesthetic depth and vital parameters, and methods of support are used less frequently than in domestic species. Provision of analgesia is uncommon. Research regarding pain and its assessment, response to analgesics, and drug pharmacokinetics is needed. Dissemination of this information to practitioners needs to be improved for enhancement of the standard of care for reptiles.     

Reptiles with dermatological lesions: a retrospective study of 301 cases at two university veterinary teaching hospitals (1992-2008)

This retrospective study reviews the medical records of 301 reptiles with dermatological lesions that were examined at the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, University of California at Davis (VMTH-UCD) and the Unité de Dermatologie-Parasitologie-Mycologie, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Nantes (UDPM-ENVN) from 1 January 1992 to 1 July 2008. The most common reptile groups differed between the two hospitals, with lizards being the most common at the VMTH-UCD and chelonians at the UDPM-ENVN. At the VMTH-UCD, boa constrictors (Boa constrictor), ball pythons (Python regius) and other Python species were over-represented, and box turtles (Terrapene carolina) were under-represented in the dermatological lesion caseload. When institutional data were combined, 47% of all reptiles at both institutions with confirmed or suspected cases of sepsis had petechiae, with the highest association seen in chelonians at 82%. Dependent on institution and reptile group, from 29% to 64% of the cases had underlying husbandry issues. Sixty-two per cent of all cases were alive at final status. Veterinarians treating reptiles with skin disease should be aware of the following: (i) that boa constrictors and Python species may be predisposed to dermatological lesions; (ii) that client education is important for proper husbandry; and (iii) that there is a possible association between petechiae and sepsis, especially in chelonians. The conjectural association between certain skin lesions and sepsis remains to be confirmed by systematically derived data that demonstrate a causal relationship between the two.     

Ocular disorders of pet ferrets.

Ocular disorders in pet ferrets are becoming more widely recognized as the popularity of these animals as companions increases. Knowledge of the anatomy of ferrets and a thorough examination are critical to accurately diagnosing ocular disease. If recognized early, some conditions can be managed successfully. Veterinarians should continue to report ocular conditions that are encountered in this species to help increase knowledge about these disorders.     

Fish, amphibian, and reptile analgesia.

Pain perception and appropriate behavioral responses are important for survival. The conservation of the opioid ligand and receptor suggests evolution of opioid receptors mediating antinociception throughout vertebrate phylogeny. Fish, amphibians, and reptiles have appropriate neurologic components, display the appropriate behavior in response to a painful stimulus, and possess antinociceptive mechanisms to modulate pain. Because pain perception in these species is therefore likely to be analogous to that of mammals, invasive and painful procedures should always be accompanied by appropriate analgesia and anesthesia. Although specific doses have not been established in clinical trials, clinicians should attempt to provide lower vertebrates with appropriate analgesia during painful procedures. Further experimental and clinical investigations are necessary to expand the current veterinary literature in the area of pain and analgesia in lower vertebrates such as fish, amphibians, and reptiles.     

Diagnosis of Nontraumatic Blood Loss in Birds and Reptiles

Blood loss due to trauma is recognized in all vertebrates. Other causes of blood loss, including coagulopathy and hemolysis, are common in mammals but rare in birds and reptiles. Blood loss syndromes may be underreported in birds and reptiles because of the inability of veterinarians to recognize these conditions. This review presents a summary of current knowledge of hemostasis in birds and reptiles, with emphasis on hemolytic and coagulopathic disorders that have been reported in these species. The focus of this article is on recognizing and diagnosing nontraumatic blood loss in birds and reptiles.     

An Overview of Pentastomiasis in Reptiles and Other Vertebrates

Pentastomes are wormlike arthropods uniquely adapted to an obligate endoparasitic lifestyle in the respiratory tract of terrestrial vertebrates. The overwhelming majority of pentastome species infect the lungs of reptiles. The life cycle of these arthropods usually involves at least one intermediate host. Pentastomes carry zoonotic potential, but among those parasitizing reptiles only Armillifer spp. have been unquestionably associated with accidental human infections. Recent evidence suggests that pentastomes are crustaceans closely related to branchiurans, therefore therapeutic agents targeting fish lice should be investigated for their use in treating pentastome-infected reptile patients.     

Normal oral bacterial flora from some southern African snakes.

Eighteen snakes representing 11 species were subject to mouth swabbing on 58 occasions. Of these swabs, 52.2% were positive for bacteria. A total of 92 bacterial isolates were cultured, representing 30 species of which 81.5% were Enterobacteriaceae, 16.3% gram positive cocci, and 2.2% anaerobes. Swabs from non-venomous snakes were more commonly bacteriologically sterile than those from venomous snakes (P = 0.0107). The oral bacterial flora did not differ between captive and newly captured snakes. The bacterial species found were not constant in a single snake with time, in the same snake species, the same serpentarium or geographically. The bacteria most commonly cultured were Proteus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Salmonella arizonae and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Colony counts tended to be low. Three or more bacterial species per venomous snake per occasion were more common in winter than summer (P= 0.0192).     

Successful euthanasia of a juvenile fin whale

A stranded juvenile fin whale was successfully euthanized with an intravenous injection of sedative and cardioplegic drugs. Veterinarians may face a number of serious difficulties if called to perform this task, and advance preparation is required for successful euthanasia of these animals.     

Community people-pet programs that work

Excellent models exist for people-pet programs in institutions and in the community. Veterinarians should assess the needs of their local communities and adapt a model program to fit these needs.     

Diagnosis and management of reptile orthopedic injuries.

As veterinarians expand their understanding of the specific husbandry requirements for captive reptiles, nutritionally associated orthopedic injuries should decrease. Orthopedic injuries in wild reptiles, however, will continue to increase as new infrastructure encroaches on the habitats of these animals. Research should be pursued that focuses on improving our understanding of pain management in reptiles, on developing techniques to expedite bone healing, and on creating new orthopedic techniques that provide rigid stabilization without the use of temperature-sensitive materials.     

两栖爬行动物的异地保护

中国是世界上动植物种类最丰富的国家之一，但国内对野生两栖爬行动物的掠夺性利用还在发展；国内野生两栖爬行动物资源在这种疯狂的掠夺下已经接近枯竭，多数物种处于濒危状态。动物园作为野生动物异地保护的重要场所，饲养繁殖野生动物的最终目的是实现濒危物种的再引入，恢复野外种群数量．出于以上目的，动物园中两栖爬行动物的饲养管理方式有别于爬虫爱好者单纯的满足对宠物的要求和增殖牟利追求。这种区别不仅表现在选择动物种类方面，更多的体现在丰容概念的引入及工作方法的应用：营造合理的饲养环境、饲养环境小气候的周期性变化、设施的丰容、群体的调整、食物及供给方式的变化、对繁殖行为的鼓励等。这些丰容手段对保持两栖爬行动物的自然行为，从而保证动物的野外生存能力具有重要作用．     

Expanding families: preparing for and introducing dogs and cats to infants, children, and new pets

Once clients make a decision to expand their family with children or pets, veterinarians can be instrumental in providing education and support to make the additions successful. Veterinarians should remind clients to make changes in the household well in advance of the new addition's arrival, to be patient, to make all introductions safe and controlled, and to reward good behavior. If problems arise, owners should be advised to separate those involved and get behavioral treatment as soon as possible. Through these simple steps, veterinarians can increase the likelihood that clients will be able to integrate new family members successfully.     

Elapid snake envenomation in dogs in New South Wales: a review

Elapid snake envenomation in dogs is a commonly occurring yet poorly described clinical entity. Twelve species of dangerously venomous elapid snakes are found in New South Wales that are capable of causing disease in dogs. Geographical distribution of these species varies, as does their venom composition and systemic envenomation syndromes produced in target species. Elapid venom may be divided into the components of prothrombin activating enzymes, lipases and peptidic neurotoxins. Each species of elapid snake may possess venom components that fit any or all of these classifications. The action of these venom components may result in neurotoxic (pre-synaptic and post-synaptic), haemotoxic (red-cell destruction and coagulation disturbance), cardiovascular, myotoxic and secondary nephrotoxic effects. Marked variability may occur in venom composition between and within snake species, resulting in varying toxicity between species and also potentially unreliable clinical syndromes following envenomation. The existence of certain components consistently within the venom of each snake species allows the broad definition of basic pathological processes and clinicopathological changes resulting from snake species-specific envenomation and these are discussed. Diagnosis of snake envenomation is unreliable if based on clinical signs alone and the use of these signs in conjunction with history, physical examination and laboratory investigation, including snake venom detection kits, is recommended. Treatment of systemic envenomation should be undertaken with initial effective first aid and subsequent administration of snake species-specific antivenom.     

Balancing fact and fiction of novel ingredients: definitions, regulations and evaluation.

Veterinarians have an opportunity to help educate their clients regarding the safety and efficacy of novel ingredients used by their clients. This is no small task because of the lack of acceptable information. Clients should be counseled regarding the lack of scientific evidence and be encouraged to discriminate fact from fiction, including many testimonials. Safety should be of primary concern, and clients should be encouraged not to neglect traditional therapies in lieu of novel ingredients unless clinical evidence of efficacy exists. Quality assurance is equally important and cannot be underestimated. Clients are likely to resort to less expensive products. Clients should be directed to the advice offered by the Arthritis Foundation as follows: "When a supplement has been studied with good results, find out which brand was used and buy that." Although skepticism is encouraged regarding any unknown product with medicinal indications, open mindedness should also guide the veterinarian as these products are considered. Indeed, veterinarians should take actions to ensure that the use of these compounds is accomplished within the confines of the veterinary-client-patient relationship, thus ensuring the role of the veterinarian in the health and well-being of animals, regardless of the modality of therapy. The veterinary profession should support the development of standards that might guide manufacturers of novel ingredients to meet criteria that protect the consumer. Likewise, we should encourage manufacturers and agencies to fund veterinary clinical trials to provide evidence for the use of these potentially exciting compounds. Above all else, the veterinarian needs to become a credible resource of information about the possible role of these products. The lack of a regulatory mechanism that establishes the safety and efficacy of these products is not justification for ignoring the potential therapeutic benefit of some of these products. Veterinarians should follow the advice of the Arthritis Foundation, which notes: "Since glucosamine is self-prescribed ... health care professionals are not regarded [to have] objective advice. This situation must change. It is time for the profession to accommodate the possibility that many nutritional products may have valuable therapeutic effects" [61].