Behavioural adaptation in the domestic horse: potential role of apparently abnormal responses including stereotypic behaviour

Classically, biologists have considered adaptation of behavioural characteristics in terms of long-term functional benefits to the individual, such as survival or reproductive fitness. In captive species, including the domestic horse, this level of explanation is limited, as for the most part, horses are housed in conditions that differ markedly from those in which they evolved. In addition, an individual horse's reproductive fitness is largely determined by man rather than its own behavioural strategies. Perhaps for reasons of this kind, explanations of behavioural adaptation to environmental challenges by domestic animals, including the capacity to learn new responses to these challenges, tend to concentrate on the proximate causes of behaviour. However, understanding the original function of these adaptive responses can help us explain why animals perform apparently novel or functionless activities in certain housing conditions and may help us to appreciate what the animal welfare implications might be. This paper reviews the behavioural adaptation of the domestic horse to captivity and discusses how apparently abnormal behaviour may not only provide a useful practical indicator of specific environmental deficiencies but may also serve the animal as an adaptive response to these deficiencies in an “abnormal” environment.     

Pluripotency network in porcine embryos and derived cell lines

Huge amounts of work have been dedicated to the establishment of embryonic stem cell lines from farm animal species since the successful isolation of embryonic stem cells from the mouse and from the human. However, no conclusive results have been obtained so far, and validated lines have yet to be established in domestic animals. Many limiting factors have been suggested and need to be studied further to isolate truly pluripotent cell lines from livestock. In this review, we will discuss the difficulties in deriving and maintaining embryonic stem cell lines from farm animal embryos and how can this lack of success be explained. We will summarize results obtained in our laboratory regarding derivation of pluripotent cells in the pigs. Problems related to the identification of standard methods for derivation, maintenance and characterization of cell lines will also be examined. We will focus our attention on the need for appropriate stemness-related marker molecules that can be used to reliably investigate pluripotency in domestic species. Finally, we will review data presently available on functional key pluripotency-maintaining pathways in farm animals.     

Immunology of inflammatory diseases of the bowel.

During the past century, research on animal diseases has focused on the characterization of specific etiologies and disease control strategies. Many diseases affecting domestic animals have been successfully controlled using various methods, including vaccination, management, vector control, or antimicrobial agents. A number of microorganisms have proven resistant to these efforts. Control of these organisms requires the development of new strategies. As practitioners and researchers, we need to consider approaches that encompass the entire realm of disease expression from molecular to immune responses and interactions with other functional systems (e.g., endocrine, neurologic, and vascular systems). We need a basic understanding of effective immune responses enabling the tailoring of vaccines to produce the desired response. This tailoring of host responses is augmented by the use of vaccines that use host growth factors, cytokines, or costimulatory molecules to bias the ensuing response. Intestinal microbial flora of food-producing animals can be managed to optimize health and minimize colonization by pathogenic organisms, especially zoonotic agents. New systems for the delivery of cytokines and other factors that favor optimal intestinal health and homeostasis need to be researched and evaluated. With time, it is likely that our clients and the consumers will be less tolerant of antibiotic usage. They will be more aware of the zoonotic potential of many microbes that colonize food animals. Food safety issues will be a continuing concern, as will the protection of our water supply from contamination from feedlots and pasture runoff. We are in the dawn of a new century, and, it is hoped, a new era of discovery of enteric disease pathogenesis and control.     

Safety of fenbendazole use in cattle

Fenbendazole (Panacur: Hoechst) has a low degree of toxicity, teratogenicity and adverse effects on the reproductive tract, and a high degree of safety in experimental animals. Acute, subacute and long-term toxicity trials in cattle given fenbendazole at dosages of up to 2 g/kg revealed no adverse effects. Studies of teratogenicity, effects on fertility, compatibility with other drugs, and safety for animal handlers had similarly negative results.     

Domestic animal models for biomedical research

Experimental animals in biomedical research provide insights into disease mechanisms and models for determining the efficacy and safety of new therapies and for discovery of corresponding biomarkers. Although mouse and rat models are most widely used, observations in these species cannot always be faithfully extrapolated to human patients. Thus, a number of domestic species are additionally used in specific disease areas. This review summarizes the most important applications of domestic animal models and emphasizes the new possibilities genetic tailoring of disease models, specifically in pigs, provides.     

Occupational transmission of an Orthopoxvirus infection during an outbreak in a colony of Macaca tonkeana in Lazio Region,Italy, 2015

Orthopoxviruses spill over from animal reservoirs to accidental hosts, sometimes causing human infections. We describe the surveillance and infection control measures undertaken during an outbreak due to an Orthopoxvirus occurred in January 2015 in a colony of Macaca tonkeana in the province of Rieti, Latio, Italy, which caused a human asymptomatic infection. According to the epidemiological investigation, the human transmission occurred after an unprotected exposure. The contacts among wild, captive and domestic animals and humans, together with decreased immunity against Orthopoxviruses in the community, may put animal handlers at risk of infection, especially after the cessation of smallpox vaccination. To reduce these threats, standard precautions including respiratory hygiene and transmission‐based precautions should be carefully applied also in veterinary medicine.     

The within host dynamics of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis infection in cattle: where time and place matter

Johne’s disease or paratuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), occurs in domestic and wild animals worldwide, causing a significant economic loss to livestock industries. After a prolonged incubation time, infected cattle shed MAP bacilli into feces and spread the disease to an uninfected animal population. It is largely unknown how (or whether) the interplay between the pathogen and the host immunity determines timing of shedding after the long incubation time. Such information would provide an understanding of pathogenesis in individual animals and the epidemiology of MAP infection in animal populations. In this review, we summarize current knowledge of bovine Johne’s disease pathology, pathogenesis, immunology and genetics. We discuss knowledge gaps that direly need to be addressed to provide a science-based approach to diagnostics and (immuno)prophylaxis. These knowledge gaps are related to anatomical/clinical manifestation of MAP invasion, interaction of bacteria with phagocytes, granuloma formation, shedding, establishment and kinetics of adaptive immune responses in the pathogenesis of the disease. These topics are discussed at the molecular, cellular and tissue levels with special attention to the within host dynamics including the temporal and the spatial context relevant for the various host-pathogen interactions.     

Genetic control of immune responsiveness: a review of its use as a tool for selection for disease resistance

Disease resistance and immune responsiveness have been traits generally ignored by animal breeders. Recent advances in immunology and molecular biology have opened new avenues towards our understanding of genetic control of these traits. The major histocompatibility gene complex (MHC) appears to play a central role in all immune functions and disease resistance. The need to understand the relationship between immune responsiveness, disease resistance and production traits is discussed in this review. Antagonistic relationships might prevent simultaneous improvement of all of these traits by conventional breeding methods. It is suggested that genetic engineering methods may allow the simultaneous improvement of disease resistance and production traits in domestic animals. Genes of the MHC will be especially good candidates for genetic engineering experiments to improve domestic species.     

Animal handling

Handlers with an understanding of animal behavior can handle livestock more efficiently and safely than handlers that lack an appreciation for the behavior of animals and their welfare. For example, four good handlers in a well-designed circular cattle-handling facility with a hydraulic squeeze could place an ear implant every 15 seconds or brand, vaccinate (up to four injections), place an ear implant, and castrate one animal every 45 seconds. Handlers that yelled at and prodded cattle excessively usually required more time to process each animal, due to wasted time when excited cattle escaped or became jammed in the squeeze. Veterinarians should teach clients the principles of animal behavior that relate to animal handling. Quiet, efficient handling will reduce stress and injuries to both people and livestock.     

Using dogs for tiger conservation and research

This paper is a review of the history, development and efficacy of using dogs in wildlife studies and considers the use of dogs in the research and conservation of wild tigers (Panthera tigris Linnaeus, 1758). Using scat detection dogs, scent-matching dogs, law enforcement detection dogs and protection dogs are proven methods that can be effectively used on tigers. These methods all take advantage of the dog's extremely evolved sense of smell that allows them to detect animals or animal byproducts (often the focus of tiger studies). Dogs can be trained to communicate this information to their handlers.     

Vaccination against chlamydial infections of man and animals

Vaccination is the best approach for controlling the spread of chlamydial infections, in animal and human populations. This review summarises the progress that has been made towards the development of effective vaccines over the last 50 years, and discusses current vaccine strategies. The ultimate goal of vaccine research is to develop efficacious vaccines that induce sterile, long-lasting, heterotypic protective immune responses. To date, the greatest success has been in developing whole organism based killed or live attenuated vaccines against the animal pathogens Chlamydophila abortus and Chlamydophila felis. However, similar approaches have proved unsuccessful in combating human chlamydial infections. More recently, emphasis has been placed on the development of subunit or multicomponent vaccines, as cheaper, safer and more stable alternatives. Central to this is a need to identify candidate vaccine antigens, which is being aided by the sequencing of representative genomes of all of the chlamydial species. In addition, it is necessary to identify suitable adjuvants and develop methods for antigen delivery that are capable of eliciting mucosal and systemic cellular and humoral immune responses. DNA vaccination in particular holds much promise, particularly in terms of safety and stability, although it has so far been less effective in humans and large animals than in mice. Thus, much research still needs to be done to improve the delivery of plasmid DNA, as well as the expression and presentation of antigens to ensure that effective immune responses are induced.     

浅谈中国家畜多样性的保护

本文概述了我国家畜多样性的现状，指出家畜多样性保护是客观实际的需要，是畜牧业持续发展的需要，也是解决生存问题的需要，并进一步提出了家畜多样性的保护目标和利用策略。     

浅谈中国家畜多样性的保护

本文概述了我国家畜多样性的现状 ,指出家畜多样性保护是客观实际的需要 ,是畜牧业持续发展的需要 ,也是解决生存问题的需要 ,并进一步提出了家畜多样性的保护目标和利用策略     

The calf training for loading onto vehicle at weaning

The aim of this study is to examine whether calf training for loading at the weaning period improves later loading. Five calves were allocated to the trained group and the control group, respectively. Calves in the trained group were loaded onto a livestock trailer for 5 successive days at weaning. Trainers led or hauled the calves by rope only. When loading was completed, trainers fed calves with sugar cubes as rewards. Calves in the control group were weaned without any treatment. Five weeks after weaning, tests were carried out under similar conditions as the trained group. Loading efficiency, physical effort on the handler and handling stress on calves between groups were compared. Trained calves were loaded significantly faster than control calves. Trained calves balked less during loading than control calves. Heart rates of handlers after loading were significantly lower in the trained group than in the control group; however, salivary amylase activity and cortisol concentration was not different between groups. Physical effort and stress on handlers would be almost the same in both groups. Heart rate, plasma cortisol, NEFA and CPK of calves were significantly increased only in the control group after loading. These results show calf training improves loading efficiency and reduces stress on calves.     

Epigenetics and transgenerational inheritance in domesticated farm animals

Epigenetics provides a molecular mechanism of inheritance that is not solely dependent on DNA sequence and that can account for non-Mendelian inheritance patterns. Epigenetic changes underlie many normal developmental processes, and can lead to disease development as well. While epigenetic effects have been studied in well-characterized rodent models, less research has been done using agriculturally important domestic animal species. This review will present the results of current epigenetic research using farm animal models (cattle, pigs, sheep and chickens). Much of the work has focused on the epigenetic effects that environmental exposures to toxicants, nutrients and infectious agents has on either the exposed animals themselves or on their direct offspring. Only one porcine study examined epigenetic transgenerational effects; namely the effect diet micronutrients fed to male pigs has on liver DNA methylation and muscle mass in grand-offspring (F2 generation). Healthy viable offspring are very important in the farm and husbandry industry and epigenetic differences can be associated with production traits. Therefore further epigenetic research into domestic animal health and how exposure to toxicants or nutritional changes affects future generations is imperative.     

Environment-genetic influences on immunocompetence

The immunological responses of an animal are changing continually in response to perceived environmental changes. This is because the genetic background, the lifelong environment of animals and their interaction greatly influence immunological responsiveness. An animal's genetic background influences all factors related to immunocompetence. Among these are age of onset of immunocompetence, responsiveness to specific antigens, antibody titers, type of antibody and immune response, as well as the persistence of the responses. Defense by immunity must require considerable resources, because chickens with a high antibody response are smaller and have poorer feed efficiencies than those chickens whose antibody response is lower. An increase in the effectiveness of one defensive factor may result in reduced effectiveness of another factor. For example, chickens selected for a high antibody titer response to antigen have reduced effectiveness of macrophages. Environmental stresses influence the immune response. Stress at the time of the animal's contact with antigen results in a reduced antibody response. After the antibody response begins, stress has little effect. Stress promotes the sensitization of cell-mediated immunity but inhibits its effectiveness. A short-term stressor such as weaning is followed, in about 24 h, by a short period of reduced immunocompetence, even though lymphoid mass may be reduced. Reduced immunocompetence during stressful periods can be reduced by employing adrenal blocking chemicals, or by socializing animals to their handlers.     

Halal slaughtering,welfare, and empathy in farm animals: a review

Pre-slaughter and slaughter stressors are considered major concerns in animal welfare. Halal slaughtering method is considered one of the slaughtering stressors in livestock. This method seems to cause fear followed by stress in animals mainly due to inhuman handling. In this review, empathy and animal welfare are discussed in light of Islamic sharia and has further linked with animal’s physiology and behavioral responses during slaughtering. Islam as a religion forbids slaughtering an animal in front of another animal as through optic, olfactory, and cochlear senses animals can perceive the stress state of conspecifics. This suggests and strengthens the hypothesis that animals being slaughtered in front of each other may produce stress in them. This argument further leads to a claim that animals can experience empathy of each other through olfaction of semiochemicals (stress pheromones) emitted from animals slaughtered in the stressful condition that can be detected by other animals in abattoirs. Hence, research is needed to find out these specific stress pheromones and legislation needs to be adopted in slaughterhouses to isolate the areas of butchery from slaughtering lines to ensure proper guidelines of Halal slaughtering in slaughterhouses.     

Epigenetics and transgenerational inheritance in domesticated farm animals

Epigenetics provides a molecular mechanism of inheritance that is not solely dependent on DNA sequence and that can account for non-Mendelian inheritance patterns. Epigenetic changes underlie many normal developmental processes, and can lead to disease development as wel. While epigenetic effects have been studied in wel-characterized rodent models, less research has been done using agricultural y important domestic animal species. This review wil present the results of current epigenetic research using farm animal models(cattle, pigs, sheep and chickens). Much of the work has focused on the epigenetic effects that environmental exposures to toxicants, nutrients and infectious agents has on either the exposed animals themselves or on their direct offspring. Only one porcine study examined epigenetic transgenerational effects; namely the effect diet micronutrients fed to male pigs has on liver DNA methylation and muscle mass in grand-offspring(F2 generation). Healthy viable offspring are very important in the farm and husbandry industry and epigenetic differences can be associated with production traits. Therefore further epigenetic research into domestic animal health and how exposure to toxicants or nutritional changes affects future generations is imperative.     

A commentary on domestic animals as dual-purpose models that benefit agricultural and biomedical research

Research on domestic animals (cattle, swine, sheep, goats, poultry, horses, and aquatic species) at land grant institutions is integral to improving the global competitiveness of US animal agriculture and to resolving complex animal and human diseases. However, dwindling federal and state budgets, years of stagnant funding from USDA for the Competitive State Research, Education, and Extension Service National Research Initiative (CSREES-NRI) Competitive Grants Program, significant reductions in farm animal species and in numbers at land grant institutions, and declining enrollment for graduate studies in animal science are diminishing the resources necessary to conduct research on domestic species. Consequently, recruitment of scientists who use such models to conduct research relevant to animal agriculture and biomedicine at land grant institutions is in jeopardy. Concerned stakeholders have addressed this critical problem by conducting workshops, holding a series of meetings with USDA and National Institutes of Health (NIH) officials, and developing a white paper to propose solutions to obstacles impeding the use of domestic species as dual-purpose animal models for high-priority problems common to agriculture and biomedicine. In addition to shortfalls in research support and human resources, overwhelming use of mouse models in biomedicine, lack of advocacy from university administrators, long-standing cultural barriers between agriculture and human medicine, inadequate grantsmanship by animal scientists, and a scarcity of key reagents and resources are major roadblocks to progress. Solutions will require a large financial enhancement of USDA's Competitive Grants Program, educational programs geared toward explaining how research using agricultural animals benefits both animal agriculture and human health, and the development of a new mind-set in land grant institutions that fosters greater cooperation among basic and applied researchers. Recruitment of outstanding scientists dedicated to using domestic animal models for agricultural and biomedical research, strong incentives for scientists to take advantage of training opportunities to write NIH grants, and greater NIH and USDA cooperation to sponsor the use of agricultural animals as dual-purpose animal models that benefit agriculture and biomedicine will also be necessary. In conclusion, the broad diversity of animal models needed for agricultural and biomedical research is at risk unless research priorities at the land grant universities are critically evaluated and financial support for such research is dramatically increased.     

The role of wildlife in transboundary animal diseases

This paper identifies some of the more important diseases at the wildlife-livestock interface and the role wildlife plays in disease transmission. Domestic livestock, wildlife and humans share many similar pathogens. Pathogens of wild or domestic animal origin that can cause infections in humans are known as zoonotic organisms and the converse are termed as anthroponotic organisms. Seventy-seven percent of livestock pathogens and 91% of domestic carnivore pathogens are known to infect multiple hosts, including wildlife. Understanding this group of pathogens is critical to public health safety, because they infect a wide range of hosts and are most likely to emerge as novel causes of infection in humans and domestic animals. Diseases at the wildlife-livestock interface, particularly those that are zoonotic, must be an area of focus for public health programs and surveillance for emerging infectious diseases. Additionally, understanding wildlife and their role is a vital part of understanding the epidemiology and ecology of diseases. To do this, a multi-faceted approach combining capacity building and training, wildlife disease surveillance, wildlife-livestock interface and disease ecology studies, data and information sharing and outbreak investigation are needed.