Large‐scale Modeling of Soil Erosion with RUSLE for Conservationist Planning of Degraded Cultivated Brazilian Pastures

Pasture degradation is one of the major environmental and economic problems of Brazilian livestock production. Based on the estimates of soil loss in 140,297 km² pasturelands of Goiás State and the Federal District, the effects of land use and management and conservation practices on soil erosion by water were evaluated. Soil loss was estimated with the empirical revised universal soil loss equation model under four scenarios of land use and management of pastures and the implementation of terraces. The effects of converting hilly areas into permanently preserved areas were also evaluated. Well‐managed pastures planted in terraces and highly sloped areas with native vegetation featured a reduction of 709% in the rate of soil erosion by water in comparison with poorly managed pastures without soil conservation practices. The environmental consequences of pasture degradation become particularly important when they are associated with land use in the Amazon and Cerrado biomes because farmers in these regions are forced to open new natural areas. In addition, the high indices of bare soil in degraded pastures contribute significantly to sediment deposition in rivers and dams. The modeling of soil loss is demonstrated to be an important tool for land use planning and supporting public policies focused on the sustainable use of natural resources. The results of these simulations demonstrate the importance of actions to recover degraded pastures, such as the Federal Government's program known as ABC (Low Carbon Agriculture). Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Carbon,nitrogen, phosphorus and enzymatic activity under different land uses in a tropical,dry ecosystem

We compared total C, N and P, available forms of N and P and dehydrogenase, urease and acid phosphatase activities in soils from primary forests, 26‐year‐old pastures and 26‐year‐old secondary forests in the tropical dry forest region of Chamela, Jalisco, Mexico. We hypothesized that, because of their natural regeneration and greater plant diversity, secondary forest soils would have higher fertility and enzyme activities than pasture soils and would be more similar to primary forest soils. We predicted also that enzymes would be better indicators of land‐use effects on soil fertility than nutrients. Only one nutrient, available phosphorus, and one enzyme, acid phosphatase, were significantly and consistently affected by land use. As expected, these parameters were greater in primary and secondary forests than in pastures. Principal components analysis using all variables placed secondary forests intermediate between primary forests and pastures, as predicted, and total C, N and P, available P, ammonium, phosphatase, urease and the C:P ratio were the variables associated with this spatial arrangement of land uses. We conclude that secondary forest soils showed improved fertility and were overall closer to primary forests than to pastures in most variables measured.     

Comparison of soil properties of native forests,Pinus patula plantations and adjacent pastures in the Andean highlands of southern Ecuador: land use history or recent vegetation effects?

In the high Andes of Ecuador scarcity of farmland has led to accelerated deforestation, in particular over the last 40 years. Soil mis‐management has caused the rapid decline of soil fertility and most farmland has been irreversibly transformed into grassland or tree plantations. The present study assessed whether pastures and particularly pine plantations were associated with less soil nutrients. The soils from six sites each of native forests and Pinus patula plantations, and their adjacent pastures were sampled in a geographically large area in the Paute watershed, south Ecuador. Soil analyses showed statistically significant differences for soil cations and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) only. ECEC was highest in soils from native forests and their adjacent pastures (6.4 cmol/kg) compared to pine plantations and their pastures (4.2 cmol/kg). Mean soil organic matter and pH were similar in native forests/pastures (39% SOM; pH 5.4) and in plantations/pastures (40% SOM; pH 5). As pasture soils had ECEC concentrations statistically similar to those of their adjacent forest or plantation, they do not form a single homogeneous land use type based on soil nutrients. Therefore, this study cannot conclude that the presence of pines alone has caused soil degradation, but instead that the soil at the site was already degraded before pines were planted. This study proposes the scenario that pine plantations are established in pastures as a last resort, when the soils are already strongly degraded, and more profitable land uses are not available. Farmers are reluctant to use fertile land for tree plantations, and only the planting of well‐known species, such as pines, is officially encouraged.     

Effect of Land-Use History on Soil Carbon and Nitrogen in a Mediterranean Catchment

The impact of land use on soil organic matter was investigated. Five land cover types (pine forest, olive groves, wheat, wheat/maize cultivation systems, and a shrub pasture) belonging to three land-use categories from the same catchment in the island of Lesvos, Greece, were used. The soils developed under similar pedogenetic processes and accepted similar agricultural practices for at least 30 years. The results showed that the land-use and cover types ranged according to their total soil carbon (C) content as follows: forest > double cultivation > wheat > olive > pasture. Crop plantations contained 31 to 40% less C at their upper 0- to 45-cm layer than forest. Pasture had shallow soils with a small C accumulation but high C concentration, whereas olive groves had the lowest concentrations of both soil C and nitrogen (N). Olive grove soils were the most prone to degradation but possessed the greatest potential for C sequestration.     

长江流域水土流失历史发展过程探讨

长江流域水土流失的发生、发展和加剧 ,经历了长期的历史过程。据历史资料分析 ,长江流域在公元 10世纪前植被茂密 ,水土流失轻微 ;公元 10— 17世纪 ,水土流失有所发展 ;特别是 17世纪中叶以来 ,人口剧增 ,山丘过度开发 ,水土流失不断加剧 ,逐渐成为重大环境问题。人类对土地资源的不合理开发利用是导致水土流失的主导因素。     

Consequences of forest conversion to pasture and fallow on soil microbial biomass and activity in the eastern Amazon

The main change in soil use in Amazonia is, after slash and burn deforestation followed by annual crops, the establishment of pastures. This conversion of forest to pasture induces changes in the carbon cycle, modifies soil organic matter content and quality and affects biological activity responsible for numerous biochemical and biological processes essential to ecosystem functioning. The aim of this study was to assess changes in microbial biomass and activity in fallow and pasture soils after forest clearing. The study was performed in smallholder settlements of eastern Brazilian Amazonia. Soil samples from depths of 0–2, 2–5 and 5–10 cm were gathered in native forest, fallow land 8–10 yr old and pastures with ages of 1–2, 5–7 and 10–12 yr. Once fallow began, soil microbial biomass and its activity showed little change. In contrast, conversion to pasture modified soil microbial functioning significantly. Microbial biomass and its basal respiration decreased markedly after pasture establishment and continued to decrease with pasture age. The increase in metabolic quotient in the first years of pasture indicated a disturbance in soil functioning. Our study confirms that microbial biomass is a sensitive indicator of soil disturbance caused by land‐use change.     

Time and scale of gully erosion in the Jedliczny Dol gully system, south-east Poland

Key catchments of the Roztocze loess area in south-east Poland have a great potential of revealing the history of long-term soil erosion and changes in land use. The knowledge of how and when soil erosion took place in the past helps one understand the impact of land use changes on the landscapes [Bork, H.-R., 1989. Soil erosion during the past Millennium in Central Europe and its significance within the geomorphodynamics of the Holocene. Catena 15, 121–131]. The Jedliczny Dol gully system near the town Zwierzyniec in south-east Poland was investigated by using detailed field stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating of charcoal and wood.In connection with new settlements which were established between the 14th and 16th centuries, arable land was cultivated and forests were used much more intensively. As a consequence, the loess soils were strongly eroded during heavy rainfalls. Up to 4 m of colluvial sediments were deposited in the gully system during the 15th and/or 16th centuries. The thickness of the colluvial sediments indicate severe erosion which might be related to excessive timber exploitation for the local glass and iron production. With the foundation of the so-called Ordinariat Zamoyski at the end of the 16th century, some parts of the area were presumably reforested. High pressure on the land at the beginning of the 19th century enabled a second main phase of gulling before 1900.Since 1890 at the latest, almost the whole catchment is used as a forest, however, concentrated runoff on compacted forest roads can still be high after heavy rainfalls.In loess areas soil erosion caused by intensive land use, triggered by heavy rainfalls, can change the landscape drastically. These changes will continue to influence how catchments react, even if land use gets less intensive again. This knowledge should be considered regarding future, sustainable land use and recent changes in land use in the south-eastern Polish loess regions.     

基于沙化状况和适宜性的土地利用结构调整

根据科尔沁沙地2000年的土地利用数据、从相同时期的TM影像上提取的土地沙漠化数据和土地适宜性数据，运用ARC/INFO、ARCVIEW软件和Access统计软件，分析了研究区土地利用、土地沙漠化和适宜性之间的对应关系，基于土地利用现状和适宜性进行了土地利用结构的调整，确定调整土地的面积及其空间分布。主要结论如下：草地、耕地和林地是主要土地利用类型，沙漠化原因存在差异，耕地沙化的主要原因是不宜耕作的林地、草地的开垦，而林地和草地的沙化则是由于土地质量差、利用强度大而造成的。土地利用结构调整后，耕地面积减少，草地和林地面积增加。科尔沁沙地的治理应将土地利用结构调整与农业、畜牧业经营方式的改变、土壤改良结合起来。     

Soil degradation by land use change in an agropastoral area in Sardinia (Italy)

In recent decades the clearing of Mediterranean maquis along with the creation of new pastures has been a major factor of land degradation in Sardinia (Italy). This was due to an inadequate implementation of agricultural policies. Consequently, tillage and water erosion intensified over a wide area. The present work assesses the impacts of land use change on soil properties in a representative area of central-eastern Sardinia. Paired forest and pasture sampling sites were selected in relation to present land use, land suitability, and land use history. Different soil properties were considered: physical (sand, silt, clay, soil thickness, bulk density, and penetration resistance), chemical (pH, OC, N, C/N, Ca, Mg, Na, K, CEC, and BS), biological (BQI), and micromorphological (microporosity and microstructure). The comparison of forest and pasture soils showed a significant soil loss (in terms of soil thickness, −22%), and a clear decrease in organic carbon storage (−64% on average). An increase in bulk density (+ 44%) and a change in microporosity and its vertical distribution were also observed, respectively by field measurements and micromorphological quantification on digital images.     

Mapping and monitoring land degradation risks in the Western Brazilian Amazon using multitemporal Landsat TM/ETM+ images

Mapping and monitoring land degradation in areas under human‐induced stresses have become urgent tasks in remote sensing whose importance has not yet been fully appreciated. In this study, a surface cover index (SCI) is developed to evaluate and map potential land degradation risks associated with deforestation and accompanying soil erosion in a Western Brazilian Amazon rural settlement study area. The relationships between land‐use and land‐cover (LULC) types and land degradation risks as well as the impacts of LULC change on land degradation are examined. This research indicates that remotely sensed data can be effectively used for identification and mapping of land degradation risks and monitoring of land degradation changes in the study area. Sites covered by mature forest and advanced successional forests have low land degradation risk potential, while some types of initial successional forests, agroforestry/perennial agriculture and pasture have higher risk potential. Deforestation and associated soil erosion are major causes leading to land degradation, while vegetation regrowth reduces such problems. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

紫色土丘陵区土地整理与可持续发展研究—以重庆市铜梁县为例

利用GIS软件综合处理研究区大量与土地利用相关的基础数据,分析土地开发整理的背景与条件,调查测算土地整理、复垦和开发潜力,针对紫色土丘陵区土地资源利用的现状及特点,从多方面探讨了土地整理的迫切性。依据经济、社会、生态相统一的目标,划定土地开发整理区,确定土地开发整理的方向及重点。提出了紫色土丘陵区土地可持续利用的对策。     

Soil Property Changes After Conversion from FOrest to Pasture in Mount Sacinka,Artvin, Turkey

Turkey's forests have been continuously facing conversion into both agriculture and pasturelands, causing not only degradation and fragmentation of forested lands but also negative changes in soil properties that have not been thoroughly investigated. In order to determine possible changes in some physical and hydrophysical soil parameters along with the dispersion ratio between natural coppice forests and the neighbouring forest‐to‐grassland converted areas, a foothill of Mount Sacinka in Artvin was chosen as a research area. Besides land use, possible effects of elevation change on soil properties due to the mountainous and moderately steep landscape of the region were also taken into consideration. The soil samples were analysed for soil texture, permeability, field capacity, bulk density, organic matter, pH and dispersion ratio. The results indicated that whereas permeability (43·05 mm h⁻¹ in forest and 18·82 mm h⁻¹ in pasture), field capacity (43·45% in forest and 38·08% in pasture) and organic matter (6·36% in forest and 5·34% in pasture) values turned out to be higher in forest soils, bulk density (0·91 g cm⁻³ in forest and 1·06 g cm⁻³ in pasture) and pH (5·89 in forest and 6·55 in pasture) values were low in grassland soils, meaning that conversion has negative effects on soil properties. Additionally, the mean dispersion ratios of 27·55% and 33·58% for forest and pastureland soils, respectively, indicated soil erosion problems in both land uses. In addition, as for elevation effect, forest soils especially showed better characteristics at higher elevations with high permeability, field capacity and organic matter and low pH and dispersion ratio. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Quantifying the contributions of sediment, sediment-P and fertiliser-P from forested, cultivated and pasture areas at the landuse and catchment scale using fallout radionuclides and geochemistry

In this paper we use a combination of fallout nuclides and geochemistry to determine the contributions of sediment and sediment bound phosphorus (sed-P) from the major diffuse sources in the Bundella Creek catchment (8700 ha), NSW, Australia. Sources include surface erosion from cultivated, pasture and steep forested land as well as subsoil erosion from channels and gullies. We determine these contributions to the <10 μm fraction of deposited sediments. Concentrations of P were higher in the surface soils of each landuse than the underlying subsoils, and erosion from these contributed more to offsite sediment-P (60%) than did subsoil erosion at the individual landuse scale. At the catchment outlet, the amount of surface sediment eroded from cultivated lands was a factor of 84 higher than from pastures; the steep forested lands contributed 9 times more than pastures. Sed-P eroded from cultivated land was 42 times higher than from pasturelands; the forests were 8 times greater than from pastures. At the catchment outlet the largest contribution of sediment (70%) and sed-P (62%) was from subsoil erosion of gullies and channels within and between the different landuse areas. There was little contribution of sediment or sed-P at the catchment scale from surface erosion of pastures. Concentrations of P were highest in ‘storm event’ suspended sediment samples taken from the pasture and cultivated areas without gullies. In a suite of samples selected for their high P contents, fertiliser P was detected in two storm event suspended sediment samples and one deposited sediment sample, using the ratio of Nd/P. This suggests fertiliser P may be transported-off landsurfaces with sediments and contribute to offsite sediment-P concentrations in some situations. However, the fertiliser contributions were episodic and variable; and probably influenced by particle size selectivity as well as timing of fertiliser application with respect to size and occurrence of subsequent rainfall.     

农牧交错带缓坡丘陵区土壤风蚀研究——以内蒙古后山地区为例

土壤风蚀与风、土壤粒径组成和地表植被覆盖度有关,在农牧交错带缓坡丘陵区,风蚀是很严重的自然灾害。通过在有风的天气对丘陵不同坡向和坡位的风速和风蚀量以及土壤粒径进行测定和分析,得出丘陵不同部位受侵蚀大小是坡顶大于北坡、北坡大于南坡。该项研究为控制缓坡丘陵土壤风蚀提供了理论支持。     

Temporal variation of soil compaction and deterioration of soil quality in pasture areas of Colombian Amazonia

In the Amazon basin, tropical rainforest is being slashed and burned at accelerated rates for annual crops over a couple of years, followed by forage grasses. Because of poor management, the productivity of established pastures declines in a few years so that grazing plots are abandoned and new areas are deforested. Previous studies in the region report higher bulk density in soils under pasture than in similar soils under forest. The objective of this study was to detect changes in the physical quality of the topsoil of nutrient-poor Typic Paleudults in the colonisation area of Guaviare, Colombian Amazonia, and analyse the effect of soil deterioration on pasture performance. Temporal variation of soil compaction under pasture was analysed by comparing natural forest taken as control and pasture plots of Brachiaria decumbens (Stapf) grouped into three age ranges (<3, 3–9, >9 years). Evidence of soil compaction through cattle trampling, after clearing the primary forest, included the formation of an Ap horizon with platy structure and dominant greyish or olive colours, reflecting impaired surface drainage, the increase of bulk density and penetration resistance, and the decrease of porosity and infiltration rate. From primary forest to pastures older than 9 years, bulk density of the 5–10 cm layer increase was 42% in fine-textured soils and 30% in coarse-textured soils. Penetration resistance ranged from 0.45 MPa under forest to 4.25 MPa in old pastures, with maximum values occurring at 3–12 cm depth in pastures older than 9 years. Average total soil porosity was 58–62% under forest and 46–49% under pasture. Basic infiltration dropped from 15 cm h⁻¹ in the original forest conditions to less than 1 cm h⁻¹ in old pastures. Crude protein content and dry matter yield of the forage grass steadily decreased over time. No clear relationship between declining protein content as a function of pasture age and changes in chemical soil properties was found, but there was a high negative correlation (r=−0.81) between protein content and bulk density, reflecting the effect of soil compaction on pasture performance. After about 9–10 years of use, established grass did no longer compete successfully with invading weeds and grazing plots were abandoned. As land is not yet a scarcity in this colonisation area, degraded pastures are seldom rehabilitated.     

Gefügeänderung bei Andosolen Südchiles als Folge der Nutzung seit der Rodung

Changes in soil structure as caused by land use after clearing virgin forest Three groups of volcanic ash soils from southern Chile were investigated to evaluate the change of porosity, penetrometer resistance and packing characteristics of virgin forest soils due to different forms of land use during a variable length of time. The different forms of land use were pasture, arable land and reforestation with Pinus radiata. Afforestation tended to loosen the soil and to increase soil strength, whereas pasture use or a pasture-arable land rotation showed severe compressions. Compressions, as noticed in the ash soils under study, appeared to be more pronounced than is generally observed in mineral soils.     

东北农牧交错带小流域土地利用与土壤性状耦合关系研究

以通辽市巴尔敦沟小流域为研究区,对该流域内不同土地利用类型的土壤性状进行对比研究,结果表明:（1）耕地土壤容重和土壤孔隙状况最好,林牧复合次之,林地和牧草地相差不大,农林复合最差。随土层深度的增加,土壤容重呈上升趋势,土壤孔隙度则呈下降趋势。（2）耕地0-80 cm土层土壤平均自然含水量和土壤最大贮水量最高,农林复合和林地次之,相差不大,牧草地最低。（3）不同土地利用类型土壤全量元素含量综合而言:耕地最高,牧草地次之,农林复合居中,林牧复合略差,林地最低。（4）不同土地利用类型土壤速效元素含量综合而言:耕地最高,林地次之,林牧复合和牧草地差异不大,农林复合最低。（5）不同土地利用类型的有机质含量牧草地和耕地较高,其他土地利用类型没有显著差异。综合分析表明,该小流域内耕地的物理和化学性质最好,农林复合类型的物理化学性质较差。     

Pasture renovation practices of farmers in the neotropical savannahs

Degradation of sown pastures in the neotropics is a well known but poorly documented phenomenon. The paper reports the results of a survey conducted in the eastern savannahs of Colombia to quantify farmers' reactions to perceived pasture degradation. The survey was conducted in an area of 23 644 km². The sample consisted of 46 farms, which had 19 012 ha of Brachiaria decumbens pastures distributed in 374 paddocks. Of these paddocks, 196 had been sown with vegetative seed, and 281 had received modest rates of P fertilization at planting. Pastures sown on flat lands had younger modal ages (three years) and were renovated more frequently than those sown on hilly or dissected savannahs (10 years). These differences were probably a result of variations in infrastructure and relative stage of development of the two topographies, but slight differences in inherent soil fertility may also have played a role. We found no relationship between grazing management and frequency of pasture renovation. Implications for future research on pasture reclamation are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Land-use effects on organic matter and physical properties of soil in a southern Mediterranean highland of Turkey

Forest and grassland soils in highlands of southern Mediterranean Turkey are being seriously degraded and destructed due to extensive agricultural activities. This study investigated the effects of changes in land-use type on some soil properties in a Mediterranean plateau. Three adjacent land-use types included the cultivated lands, which have been converted from pastures for 12 years, fragmented forests, and unaltered pastures lands. Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were collected from four sites at each of the three different land-use types from depths of 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm in Typic Haploxeroll soils with an elevation of about 1400 m. When the pasture was converted into cultivation, soil organic matter (SOM) pool of cultivated lands for a depth of 0–20 cm were significantly reduced by, on average 49% relative to SOM content of the pasture lands. There was no significant difference in SOM between the depths in each land-use type, and SOM values of the forest and pasture lands were almost similar. There was also a significant change in soil bulk density (BD) among cultivation (1.33 Mg m⁻³), pasture (1.19 Mg m⁻³), and forest (1.25 Mg m⁻³) soils at depth of 0–20 cm. Only for the pasture, BD of the depth of 0–10 cm was significantly different from that of 10–20 cm. Depending upon the increases in BD and disruption of pores by cultivation, total porosity decreased accordingly. Cultivation of the unaltered pasture obviously increased the soil erodibility measured by USLE-K factor for each soil depth, and USLE-K factor was approximately two times greater in the cultivated land than in the pasture indicating the vulnerability of the cultivated land to water erosion. The mean weight diameter (MWD) and water-stable aggregation (WSA) were greater in the pasture and forest soils compared to the cultivated soils, and didn’t change with the depth for each land-use type. Aggregates of >4.0 mm size were dominant in the pasture and forest soils, whereas the cultivated soils comprised aggregates of the size ≤0.5 mm. I found that samples collected from cultivated land gave the lowest saturated hydraulic conductivity values regardless of soil depths, whereas the highest values were measured on samples from forest soils. In conclusion, the results showed that the cultivation of the pastures degraded the soil physical properties, leaving soils more susceptible to the erosion. This suggests that land disturbances should be strictly avoided in the pastures with the limited soil depth in the southern Mediterranean highlands.     

基于水量平衡的红壤丘岗坡地利用结构拟合

以集雨区水量平衡为基础,从分析坡地水文过程入手,以坡地不同生态系统雨水分配、降雨过程地表径流产量、径流过程的土壤及养分流失量为参数,以生产灌溉对集雨的要求、坡地不同生态系统对雨水侵蚀的承载力、坡地雨水运移过程对环境和区域洪涝灾害的影响为约束条件,拟合出红壤丘岗坡地农林复合生态系统构建适宜的土地利用结构:人工林占30%,人工草地占15%,果药茶园占30%,耕地占20%,自然保护区占5%。该用地比例(结构)既满足于地貌单元(集雨区)生态系统利用坡地集雨维持系统水循环平衡的要求,也满足于坡地农林复合生态系统的可持续性保护的要求。