Cooperation in private forestry of post-soviet system: Forest owners’ cooperatives in Lithuania

The current state of cooperation in private forestry in Lithuania is examined, with a focus on the analysis of objectives, organisational structure and the ways forest owners’ cooperatives operate. A postal survey has been used as a main research instrument, the questionnaire consisting of a series of multiplechoice close-ended questions. This paper provides insights into the state forest enterprises and other private companies operating in the private forestry sector, and places forest owners’ cooperatives in a broader context of the private forestry sector. A typical forest owner’s cooperative in Lithuania has up to 10 members and about 20 clients to whom services are provided. The leaders of cooperatives indicate that the optimal number of clients using their services should not exceed 40. The main stated objectives of cooperatives are the provision of services to their members under the most attractive conditions, uniting members, and earning a profit for the members. These activities of cooperatives revolve around timber harvesting and trade. It is concluded that the process of cooperation of private forest owners in Lithuania is rather slow, although positive development can be observed.     

Swedish non-industrial private forest owners: a survey of self-employment and equipment investments

It has been estimated that Sweden’s non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners undertake a total of 12 M hours of self-employed forest work per year. This paper reports an evaluation of self-employment in Swedish NIPF’s in terms of the people and equipment involved. NIPF owners’ self-employment was determined by a nationwide survey. Complete equipment sales statistics were compiled from interviews with manufacturers and importers. About 66% of NIPF owners are undertaking self-employed forestry work. Pre-commercial thinning was the activity undertaken most frequently by them, followed by planting, cutting and extraction. In comparison to other NIPF owners, self-employed NIPF owners tend to be younger, and are more likely to be male, single owners, resident on holdings, farmers and members of forest owner associations. Sales of new equipment suitable for self-employed individuals amounted to €67 M, or 83,000 items. Based on sales numbers and the profile of self-employed NIPF owners, no major changes in the amount and nature of self-employment are expected in the near future.     

The Values and Objectives of Private Forest Owners and Their Influence on Forestry Behaviour: The Implications for Entrepreneurship

There are many factors that determine what forestry activities forest owners carry out in their forest properties and that influence whether forest owners engage in entrepreneurial activity. This paper explores whether the values and objectives of forest owners influence their forestry behaviour and their engagement in entrepreneurial activity. This is done through a review of the literature on private forest owners’ typologies based on owners’ objectives. The review reveals that typologies typically divide forest owners into two main groups. The primary objective of the first group of owners is production (of wood and non-wood goods and services) usually, although not exclusively, so as to generate economic activity. The primary objective of the second group is consumption (of wood and non-wood goods and services). There is a tacit assumption in the studies reviewed that goals and objectives do influence forestry behaviour but few studies have actually assessed whether this is the case. The general finding is that forest owners whose objectives are timber production and who are business-oriented are more likely to manage and harvest their stands. No research focusing on the link between owners’ objective and wider entrepreneurial activity in forests was found.     

Values placed on forest property benefits by Swedish NIPF owners: Differences between members in forest owner associations and non-members

A forest property represents benefits to the owner, the nature of which varies between resident and non-resident owners. Forest owners’ associations can be considered as an arrangement to increase the benefit from forest ownership by helping the forest owner to increase profitability. Thus, it can be assumed that associated forest owners value forest property benefits differently to non-associated owners. This study examines differences between members and non-members, and residents and non-residents, with respect to how they value the various forest property benefits. Responses from a landholder survey reveal differences concerning forestry income, maintaining contact with native locality, and keeping up a tradition in forestry. It is concluded that a challenge for the associations is to develop the organisation in accordance with the forest owners’ dissimilar property interests.     

New forest owners and owners-to-be: apples and oranges?

This literature review focuses on two groups of landowners in the US and Finland: those current family owners who have recently become forest owners, with a relatively short duration of ownership, and private individuals who can be expected to become forest owners in the future are compared. The former group is called “new owners,” and the latter “future owners,” respectively. This study aims to find what can be concluded about future owners from studies of new owners based on the assumption that new owners are interpreted to represent future owners in these studies. The data consists of eight studies conducted after the mid 90s.     

Interactive Method for Supporting Forest Owners in Biodiversity Protection Decisions

Voluntary biodiversity protection tools have been adopted for practical use in many countries where non-industrial private forest ownership includes invaluable biodiversity resources. This has created a new kind of decision problem for individual forest owners: they should be able to define their conditions for entering into a biodiversity protection contract including sometimes a predetermined subsidy. This study presents a holding-level method for examining this decision problem. The method is based on utilization of interactive optimization where the possible subsidy has been included in the protection (no treatment) alternative of the examined stand. Generally, interactive optimization means that the landowner pinpoints the best plan by interactively studying and learning the production possibilities of his/her forest holding. Following changes made to the objective function by the forest owner, new solutions are presented for forest owners’ evaluation. If the “No treatments” option is selected in optimization for these areas, the forest owner would benefit more—in the current location of the production frontier and with the current subsidy—from entering into the protection contract than from cutting the specific forest area. In the case study, we demonstrate that the values of the holding-level goals, production possibilities of the planning area and the levels of the subsidy have a significant effect on the optimal decisions relating to biodiversity protection on the stand level.     

The nameless counterpart: a reconstruction of the experiences of private forestry extension officers with their clients

The changes to the forest ownership structure of small private forests in recent times have opened up an intensive field of research throughout Europe. Most of the studies completed to date adhere to the classic survey model and describe the behaviour and attitudes of forest owners. The research presented in this article analyses the changes to small private forests with the aid of data collected from focus groups comprised of forestry extension officers in Germany. Through the reconstruction of the experiences gleaned by the consultants, it was possible to describe the manner in which they characterise their clientele, and the changes they have observed, against the backdrop of changes occurring across rural areas. The consultants’ strategies for describing forest owners are presented. The orientation pattern presented by the extension officers is compared with the urban orientation of forest owners’ model developed by social scientists.     

The Diverse Values and Motivations of Family Forest Owners in the United States: An Analysis of an Open-ended Question in the National Woodland Owner Survey

The number of family forest owners in the USA has increased continuously in recent decades, and the fate of much of US forests lies in the hands of this diverse and dynamic group of people. The National Woodland Owner Survey (NWOS) is a recurring and comprehensive national survey of US private forest owners, including family forest owners. The NWOS includes an open-ended question that explores forest owners’ motivations and values related to their woodland. The open-ended question format allows respondents to express their own frame of reference in their own words, rather than respond to predetermined, fixed-response categories of motivations. This paper describes the system of values and motivations that emerged from analysis of responses to the open-ended question, and compares these findings to a closed-ended, fixed-response question also included in the NWOS. Diverse and multidimensional motives were expressed by respondents. Eight broad categories and 37 sub-categories of motives and values emerged from analysis of the open-ended question. The fixed categories of the closed-ended question failed to capture many dimensions of forest owner motivations. A more detailed, qualitative understanding of forest owner motivations and values is needed to provide extension foresters and others who work with family forest owners important insights and help guide public policy related to private forestland. Open-ended survey questions can help provide such understanding.     

Attitudes of small-scale forest owners to their properties in an ageing society: Findings of survey in Yamaguchi prefecture, Japan

Populations of most developed countries have been ageing, and the populations of Japanese mountain villages are estimated to have reached into a super-ageing society. In particular, because forestry is unprofitable and due to the economic recession in Japan, many small-scale forest owners face the problems of ageing. For policy-makers, it is important to assess the socioeconomic impacts of forest owners’ ageing in order to ensure the sustainable management of forests. A survey was conducted of forest owners in Yamaguchi Prefecture, which is famous for overall depopulation and ageing of the rural population. It was found that 83% of 687 plantation forest owners who responded in the survey were 60 years or older and 76% did not have forestry income over the past three years, but 81% had kept up ownership of their forest as the traditional family property. In terms of forest management intentions, the respondents were found to consist of four types, namely ‘family management’, ‘commissioned management’, ‘de-accession’ and ‘possession without proper management’. Differences in evaluations of hypothetical policies were found among the four types.     

How much do Irish Private Forest Owners Know about Forestry?

Since 1980, over 20,000 Irish landowners have afforested land, for the first time, as part of an afforestation programme subsidised by the Government and the EU. A survey of 99 private forest owners was conducted to determine their knowledge of broad aspects of forest management. Key questions were scored so as to test whether respondents had passed or failed a forestry knowledge test. Over two-thirds of private forest owners passed the test. Success in this test was shown to be related to whether respondents had (a) attended extension field days; (b) been active in forest operations in the early stages of the forest cycle and (c) been members of farming and/or forestry groups. Younger respondents (i.e., ≤50 years) were more likely to pass the knowledge test than older respondents.     

An Internet-Supported Planning Approach for Joint Ownership Forest Holdings

This article proposes a planning approach for private forest holdings that have more than one decision maker, e.g. a heirship group or a joint ownership between siblings. Through a case study example, we illustrate the phases of the proposed planning process and describe the communication and planning tools used in this process. The final aim is that in the future the forest planners’ toolkit would include this kind of approach for rather common situations where it is not easy to reach all the owners for synchronous face-to-face planning sessions. The process started with initial telephone interviews with the forest owners. From these interviews appropriate alternative forest plans were developed. Indicators and their values from the forest plans were inputted into the Mesta internet application. The forest owners were also given guidance on how to use the program. After this they were given time to independently use the program. Once the forest owners finished the use of the program, the results were collected and analyzed. Among the alternative forest plans, one was approved by all of the forest owners. The results of trial use involving a North-Karelian forest holding were encouraging. The main benefits of the approach according to the participants were learning that there are alternatives between which to choose, and reaching a common base level of understanding holding’s production possibilities for future decisions. After developing the process and technical tools further, the proposed model could serve joint ownerships over distance also in practice and in larger scale, and, as a result, foster owners’ engagement on their own forest.     

What is new about new forest owners? A typology of private forest ownership in Austria

With structural changes in agriculture, new types of forest owners have become increasingly important. This article develops an empirically-based typology of forest owners in Austria. Based on a representative survey and by means of cluster analysis, seven types of forest owners are identified. These types form a sequence, ranging from forest owners with a strong agricultural background to forest owners with no agricultural background at all. The latter exhibit markedly different behaviour in various respects, e.g. in their interest in forest-related information. The increasing number of ‘new’ forest owners raises important questions for forest policy, especially how policy instruments can reach these owners and how extension services can address them.     

Equitable regulation of private forests

The sustainability of forested ecosystems often requires cross-boundary management at large spatial scales. This can be challenging, however, in landscapes where forests are primarily under small-scale, private ownership. Consequently, in many areas of the world private forest practices are governmentally regulated to promote more consistent cross-boundary outcomes and better protection of large-scale ecological integrity. In this qualitative, ‘grounded theory’ study, 109 stakeholders throughout the State of Washington, USA were interviewed to learn their perspectives about processes and effects of private forest regulation. The State of Washington is widely recognized for its long-established and comprehensive forest regulatory policies and thus provides an excellent study area for this topic. Interviewees included private forest owners, forest policy advisors, regulatory agency employees, and representatives from forest ownership organizations, forest industry trade groups, and environmental organizations. The study revealed an important and often poorly recognized outcome of private forest regulatory policy: regulation rarely affects all private forest owners similarly. Instead, the burdens and advantages of regulation tend to be unevenly distributed within this key stakeholder group. The study identified three phenomena producing these inequitable outcomes: natural landscape variability, oversights in policy design, and disparate interests and goals among forest owners. This paper analyzes these causes, identifies solution pathways, and discusses implications for policy-makers.     

Landowner Willingness to Engage in Long-Term Timber Leases in West Virginia,USA

As global competition increases for wood-based products, the need for more efficient supply chains becomes increasingly important. In the forest products sector, these supply chains involve individuals and firms ranging from private forestland owners with standing timber to factories producing final finished products. Long-term timber leases are one mechanism that can be used to develop access to timber supplies for companies unable or unwilling to purchase land outright for growing timber. To investigate private forest owner opinions and attitudes regarding long-term timber leases, we conducted a survey of landowners from Wetzel county, West Virginia. No long-term leases were reported by respondents, but 24% claimed they would enter a lease under certain conditions. The most frequently listed concern related to long-term timber leases was for the “loss of control”. Results of this survey are discussed in the light of forest management efforts that might be used to improve the social, financial, and environmental benefits for private forest owners.     

Barriers and Opportunities for the Development of Small-scale Forest Enterprises in Europe

The article introduces the background and summarises main research findings of the research articles in this special issue. The focus is on the key issues relevant for forest-based entrepreneurship development in small-scale forestry in relation to both wood and non-wood forest products and services (NWFP&S). The article draws special attention to changing forest ownership, changing owners’ motives and values, and the evolving role of forest owners’ associations in Europe. The paper draws attention to the finding that many small-scale forest owners do not treat their forest as an income-generating asset. The ownership of the forests may be more important as symbolic capital than as a source of income. This is quite opposite to the traditional wood production model that for instance most of the Forest Owners Association’s still follow. In relation to NWFP&S, the taxonomy and indicators for NWFP&S are discussed and some conclusions from studies on forest recreation innovation and NWFP&S marketing are presented. The NWFP&S sector is traditionally product-oriented, which is strategically peculiar because the long distances from rural production areas to the customers would suggest highest orientation on marketing. Also surprising is the low level of segmentation in the sector.

Ecology-oriented House Builders and FSC-certified Domestic Timber in Japan

Forest owners’ cooperatives are one of the leading organizations in the forest sector in Japan. Yusuhara Forest Owners’ Cooperative (YFOC) in Kochi Prefecture is one of such examples, which obtained FSC forest certification as a resource manager of the forest, which belongs to more than 1,200 small-scale forest owners. YFOC has successfully expanded sales of FSC-labeled timber in recent years. Most of their certified timber is purchased by house builders in urban cities including Osaka. This paper analyzes who desires FSC-certified timber from YFOC and why. Six case studies are reported, which reveal that ecology-oriented house builders are interested in using FSC certified timber because of traceability of the timber, price advantage from direct dealing, environmentally sound forest management of YFOC, and relatively high quality of the timber.     

The formation of small-scale forestry in countries with economies in transition: Observations from Lithuania

Lithuania has been undergoing a transition from one political culture (based on a centrally planned economy and a one-party system) to a radically different political culture (market economy and a democratic political system). After the declaration of independence in Lithuania, some new phenomena emerged in forestry: the privatisation of forest industry, the formation of a free timber market; increasing timber export levels; and new modes of ownership (private forests) and enterprise (private business logging companies). Private forest owners control approximately 680,000 ha of forest, 33% of the total forest area, projected to increase to 40–45% in the future. Small-scale private forestry is developing in Lithuania but there is a lack of information about the objectives and problems of private forest owners. This paper presents the main results of a survey carried out in 2004 by the Lithuanian Forest Research Institute. The most important forest ownership objectives are firewood production for home consumption, income generation from wood and non-wood product sales, and protection of nature and biodiversity. The main problems for private forest owners are that the forest properties are too small to achieve efficiency, owners lack money for silviculture activities and there is a heavy bureaucratic system for forest-related activity documentation. A cluster analysis of respondents’ ratings of importance for various forest management objectives reveals four groups of private forest owners. These groups are named according to their dominant management objective, as multi-objective owners, businessmen, consumers and ecologists.     

Farmers’ objectives toward their woodlands in the upper Midwest of the United States: implications for woodland volumes and diversity

This paper reports the results of a study that explores the relationship between farm woodland owners’ stated intentions for owning woodland, and the structure and composition of these woodlands in the states of Illinois, Indiana and Iowa in the upper Midwest of the United States. Data from two sample-based inventories conducted by the USDA Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program were combined for this analysis—the FIA forest resources inventory and the National Woodland Owner Survey (NWOS). We looked for relationships between product value and investment in woodlands, as reflected in volumes and tree quality. We also examined whether measures of diversity reflected specific management focus. Our results partially supported our hypotheses. Woodland-focused ownership reasons were found to have larger volumes and individual tree sizes. We found that a passive woodland ownership reason—that woods were “part of the farm”—generally had lower volumes per hectare. Although we were not able to differentiate between different forest product classes and measures of volume, we did find that those landowners who harvested veneer had more volume than those who harvested for firewood. Woodland owners who salvage-harvested their woodlands—a harvesting reason that is more reactive than proactive—exhibited lower volumes per hectare than those who harvested for more proactive, product-focused reasons. Biodiversity was also found to be related to the ownership focus and harvest intent. Generally, there was lower diversity in overstory species when the woodland was viewed merely as “part of the farm,” when the product harvested was fence posts and when timber was harvested for salvage or land clearing. The small sample size limits our analysis, but we can conclude that focusing the woodland owners on management of their woodlands—regardless of what the specific management goals might be—should increase productivity and biodiversity of those woodlands.

Use and effectiveness of Washington state’s extension forest stewardship program

This paper describes the use by family forest landowners of educational programs provided by Washington State University Cooperative Extension (WSUCE), and the associated use of technical assistance programs provided by state and federal agencies and the private sector. Approximately 100,000 family forest owners controlled 19% or over 1.2 M ha of Washington’s forestland and accounted for 29% of the timber harvested in the state on a volume basis in 1998. A variety of public and private assistance and education programs are available to encourage and help family forest owners manage their forests. In 1999 a mail survey was conducted to evaluate use and effectiveness of Washington’s family forest assistance and education programs. Over half of the 872 responding family forest landowners had contact with an extension educator, program or educational material, and about three quarters of these respondents gave an overall rating of the usefulness of extension programs and materials as good or excellent. Respondents attending WSUCE forestry educational programs have larger median land ownership size, are older, have owned their forests longer, have a higher rate of absentee ownership, and are better educated than non-users. They are more likely to actively manage their forests for timber production and exhibit a clearer understanding of the multiple-use capabilities of their forests.     

Nachhaltgerechte Technikgestaltung in der Forstwirtschaft — ein Modellansatz

Zusammenfassung Forsttechnische Verfahren sind selbst nicht nachhaltig, beeinflussen aber die nachhaltige Forstbewirtschaftung in vielf?ltiger Weise: Sie k?nnen einerseits direkten Einflu? auf Umwelt und Gesellschaft ausüben, andererseits indirekt die Leistungen der Forstwirtschaft oder die Wirkungen des Waldes st?ren oder f?rdern. Um sie umfassend zu beurteilen, müssen neben den klassischen Kriterien “Funktionsf?higkeit” und “Effizienz” auch die “?koeffizienz” und die ?kologische, soziale und die ergonomische “Vertr?glichkeit” beachtet werden. Bei der daran anschlie?enden Entscheidung für ein Verfahrenoder die Nullvariante - verlangen verschiedene Hürden wie Skalenniveaus, Werte, Restriktionen, Zielkonzept des Betriebes und Unsicherheiten bezüglich Wirkungen der Verfahren oder künftiger Entwicklungen nach einem umfassenden Modell, für das ein Vorschlag unterbreitet wird. Schlie?lich wird postuliert, da? sich unter anderem an der im Wald eingesetzten Technik entscheiden wird, ob künftig den Forstleuten noch die Kompetenz zugestanden wird, den Wald zu bewirtschaften. Summary Technical processes in forestry are not sustainable as such, but affect sustainable forest management in many ways. They may have a direct effect on the environment and society or they may indirectly either interfere with or promote benefits from forestry and the effects of the forest. For a comprehensive assessment of these effects “eco-efficiency” and ecological, social and ergonomie “compatibility” have to be taken into consideration apart from classical criteria such as “functionality” and “efficiency”. When deciding in favour of a process - or the control variate - various obstacles such as scale levels, values, restrictions, operational objectives and uncertainties regarding the effects of processes or future developments call for a comprehensive model, as proposed in this study. Finally, the postulate is advanced that it will also depend on the technics used in the forest whether forestry experts will be considered sufficiently competent to continue to manage our forests in the future.