Effects of gaps on regeneration of woody plants: a meta-analysis

Forest gaps, openings in the canopy caused by death of one or more trees, have a profound effect on forest regeneration and drive the forest growth cycle. It is therefore necessary to understand the effects of forest gaps on regeneration for modern forest management. In order to provide a quantitative assessment of the effects of forest gaps on regen-eration of woody plants, we conducted this review of gap effects on woody plant regeneration on the basis of 527 observations from 42 indi-vidual papers, and reported the results of these data in a meta-analysis. Overall, densities of regenerated woody plants were significantly greater （359%） in forest gaps than on the closed-canopy forest floor. The regen-eration density in gaps of plantation forests was significantly greater （P＆lt;0.05） than that of natural forest because the regeneration in gaps of plan-tation forests was improved by both gap effects and experimental meas-ures. Similarly, in comparison to natural gaps, regeneration was better enhanced in artificial gaps. Regeneration density exhibited a significantly positive correlation with gap size, but a negative correlation with gap age because the gap size decreased with increasing gap age. Shade tolerance of woody plants affected regeneration density in gaps and understory. Average regeneration density of shade-tolerant species exhibited a sig-nificantly positive response to gaps but densities remained lower in total than those of intermediate and shade-intolerant species. Gap effects on regeneration decreased in response to increasing temperature and pre-cipitation because of the limiting effects of lower temperature and moisture on woody plant regeneration. In summary, forest gaps enhance woody plant regeneration, and the effects of gaps varied by forest type, gap characteristics, environmental factors and plant traits. The results of this meta-analysis are useful for better understanding the effects and roles of gaps on forest regeneration and forest management.     

A pre-harvest method for predicting understory light levels created by artificial canopy gaps

A new method for predicting understory light levels around an artificial canopy gap prior to the selective cutting is presented. In two even-aged coppice stands, hemispherical photographs were taken at a height of 1.3 m, and crowns of each canopy stem on the photographs were identified by field observations. To predict light levels after cutting, we used computerized images of the hemispherical photographs, in which we digitally erased all crowns to be cut (named ‘erasing method’). Light levels were calculated by an analyzing program; HEMIPHOT. Light levels predicted by the ‘erasing method’ were compared with that calculated by the ordinary photograph-analyzing method using photographs taken after the actual cutting. The correlations between the two methods were highly significant in the two stands. The ‘erasing method’ is eminently effective for the prediction of understory light levels in an artificial canopy gap.     

Successional patterns and gap phase dynamics of a humid tropical forest of the Western Ghats of Kerala, India: ground vegetation, biomass, productivity and nutrient cycling

The population dynamics of the ground vegetation and its energetics such as biomass accumulation and net primary productivity, and the nutrient cycling patterns in the humid tropical forest of the Western Ghats in India are largely determined by gap age and by whether gaps are formed naturally or through selection felling. Responses of plant categories such as herbs, shrubs, tree seedlings and saplings also vary depending upon gap type and age. An exotic species such as Chromolaena odorata occurred only in selection-felled gaps ((9 ± 3)−(49 ± 4) individuals (100 m)⁻²). Nilgirianthus ciliatus, a dominant shrub, plays a key role in the gaps in determining population dynamics of others. The net primary productivity of the ground vegetation, which is about 31.17 ± 4.26 kg (100 m)⁻² year⁻¹ in an undisturbed site, increased a year after gap formation to 102.82 ± 6.46 kg (100 m)⁻² year⁻¹ in natural gaps and to 71.82 ± 2.36 kg (100 m)⁻² year⁻¹ in selection-felled gaps. Five years after gap formation, net primary productivity of the ground vegetation declined considerably, this being related to decline in fast-growing shrub and secondary tree species in the vegetation and gap closure. A similar trend was also recorded for the rates of nutrient uptake and nutrient accumulation in the vegetation.

In natural gaps the soil nutrient level increased gradually with gap age. This could be attributed to slow release of nutrients from the fallen trunks and nutrient storage in the rapidly recovering vegetation. In contrast, in selection-felled gaps, the quantities of soil nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and magnesium were higher in 1-year-old gaps than in undisturbed sites, owing to the release of these nutrients from leaf litter and wood debris which were deposited in larger quantities within the gap itself, and owing to sparse ground vegetation resulting from the greater disturbance of the soil, in the first 1 or 2 years. The fractional annual turnover rates of elements of the ground vegetation and the soil were higher in 1-year-old gaps and declined with gap age. The significance of these results for forest management is discussed.     

林隙影响天然林更新研究进展

林隙干扰是森林循环中经常发生的小规模干扰,林隙的存在为天然林幼苗更新提供了有利的微环境。文中综述了林隙大小、林隙年龄和林隙边缘木在天然林更新过程中所起的作用,以及林隙更新理论在林业生产中实际应用情况,指出林隙更新理论在森林经营上的应用是未来林隙研究中的重要方面。     

林隙微生境及更新研究进展

系统评述了国内外关于林隙干扰及更新的最新研究进展.林隙是一种经常发生的小规模干扰,是森林群落时空格局变化的驱动力.不同的林隙干扰状况导致了林隙内光照的差异,进一步造成林隙内温度、湿度、土壤理化性质的变化,形成了微生境的时空异质性.林隙干扰通过改变微生境而对幼苗的出土、存活、定居和生长产生重要影响.林隙内种子库的物种丰富度变化很大,是幼苗分布格局的重要影响因子.更新幼苗的存活率和生长量受林隙大小及幼苗在林隙中位置的影响.指出了这一领域今后的研究方向.     

油松人工林不同大小林隙环境因子差异性比较

【目的】油松Pinus tabulaeformis是我国北方地区主要造林树种。旨在阐明油松人工林抚育间伐24 a后形成的不同等级林隙间环境因子的差异,探讨林隙的形成对环境因子的影响以及环境因子间的相关关系。【方法】在油松人工纯林选择4种等级的林隙,即林隙直径和冠层平均树高(即林分平均高)之比分别为L-Ⅰ(0.75 H)、L-Ⅱ(1.00 H)和L-Ⅲ(1.25 H)(H为冠层均高)和对照(CK,林冠下),测量了生长旺季的环境因子(光合有效辐射、空气温度、空气湿度、土壤温度和土壤湿度),在此基础上,分析了不同林隙等级间和林隙内不同区域的环境因子的差异性以及环境因子间的相关关系。【结果】1)不同等级林隙间光合有效辐射和土壤温度均达到了显著差异(P <0.05),最大差值分别达到了167.94μmol/m^2s和0.7℃,且随着林隙面积的增大而增大。2)3个面积等级的不同区域间光合有效辐射均表现出了显著的差异,土壤温度仅在L-Ⅱ面积等级林隙中达到了显著差异(P <0.05),在林隙中心区域光合有效辐射和土壤温度具有最大值。3)除了L-Ⅲ面积林隙等级外,其余的林隙等级和对照内光合有效辐射与土壤温度之间均有显著的正相关性(P <0.05)。【结论】在油松人工林内,抚育间伐24 a后,间伐产生的不同等级林隙和林隙区域会对光合有效辐射与土壤温度产生显著影响,对其他环境因子的影响不大。     

A review of the roles of forest canopy gaps

Treefall gap, canopy opening caused by the death of one or more trees, is the dominant form of disturbance in many forest systems worldwide. Gaps play an important role in forest ecology helping to pre- serve bio- and pedo-diversity, influencing nutrient cycles, and maintain- ing the complex structure of the late-successional forests. Over the last 30 years, numerous reviews have been written describing gap dynamics. Here we synthesize current understanding on gap dynamics relating to tree regeneration with particular emphasis on gap characteristics consid- ered critical to develop ecologically sustainable forest management sys- tems and to conserve native biodiversity. Specifically, we addressed the question： how do gaps influence forest structure？ From the literature re- viewed, the size of gaps induces important changes in factors such as light intensity, soil humidity and soil biological properties that influence tree species regeneration and differ in gaps of different sizes. Shade- tolerant species can colonize small gaps; shade-intolerant species need large gaps for successful regeneration. Additionally, gap dynamics differ between temperate, boreal, and tropical forests, showing the importance of climate differences in driving forest regeneration. This review summa- rizes information of use to forest managers who design cutting regimes that mimic natural disturbances and who must consider forest structure, forest climate, and the role of natural disturbance in their designs.     

A new calculation method to estimate forest gap size

The distance and direction coordinates from the center of each canopy gap to its edge in sixteen compass directions were measured in the secondary forests. Total of 21 gaps of different sizes were measured. The gap size was determined using different calculation methods: octagon method (OM), which was applied with two compass directions (OM_1 and OM_2); sixteen-gon method (SM); and elliptical-sector method (ESM), a new calculation method proposed in this work, including 8-elliptical-sector (8ESM) with two different compass directions (8ESM_1 and 8ESM_2) and 16 elliptical sector (16ESM). The results indicated that within the same gap delimitation, the average estimated gap size varied from 122.0 to 164.4 m² with different calculation methods. The estimated area of the same gap among all calculation methods and between pairs exhibited significant differences (p < 0.05). Particularly, the estimated area for the same gap was significantly different between OM_1 and OM_2 (p < 0.005), indicating that the starting direction of the OM significantly affected the gap size. However, there were no significant differences among applications of the new method. When SM is used as a standard, the gap size calculated by OM was 10.0% less but, by ESM, was 11.6% larger. Therefore, the new method is proposed for future research involving the gap size calculation. Finally, we concluded that a comparison of forest gap sizes, particularly using OM, should be conducted when discussing the effects of gaps on forest regeneration and succession. Based on Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2007, 26(3): 455–460     

Gap phase regeneration recruitment of mixed conifer-broadleaf forests in Wolong Nature Reserve

Wolong Nature Reserve is the largest reserve for protecting the endangered wild giant panda. Due to historical factors, even in many sections of the core protection area, the forests have been seriously destroyed and natural forests are poorly restored. However, the relative importance of the determinants for recruitment of communities under disturbance is rarely explored. In our study the endogenous and exterior factors in a forest gap that affect the conifer-broad-leaved mixed forest regeneration were investigated near Wuyipeng, one of the observation stations at Wolong, to explore which determinant had the greatest effect on gap regeneration and to discover the recruitment of seedling establishment in forest gaps. With a linear sampling method, environmental factors, gap characteristics and recruitment of new individuals were measured and examined in every forest gap along three sampling lines. Data of environmental factors in the gaps were collected for a Pearson correlation analysis in order to explore the disturbance and preprocessed characteristics of the gaps, using principal component analysis in SPSS. Correlation analysis was applied to further explore the relationship between changes in the gaps and the response of the regenerating seedlings. The results show that a range of natural and human disturbances affected the pattern and characteristics of the forest gaps in this area. The richness in the composition of the seedlings was higher than that of gap makers, but the order of dominance of the composition was different between seedlings and gap makers. The success of dominant species in establishing themselves was affected by different environmental factors. For instance, the establishment of Betula spp. was correlated significantly with topographic factors, while that of Abies faxoniana was affected by soil characteristics and that of Rhododendron spp. correlated significantly with topographic factors and characteristics of gap makers. Moreover, all the biodiversity indices of regenerating seedlings were significantly correlated with environmental principle components mostly reflecting soil properties. From this we can infer that soil characteristics are the most important factors affecting the regeneration of dominant species and seedling diversity under gap disturbances. __________ Translated from Journal of Plant Ecology (Chinese Version), 2007, 31 (3): 425–430 [译自: 植物生态学报]     

霍山山地灌丛植被的研究——模拟林窗

通过对2001年人工模拟林窗的调查,得出霍山地区山地灌丛林窗恢复的早期动态及环境特征,初步分析了林窗内植物的来源和地下生物量。表明,在彻底破坏的模拟林窗内,先锋植物多为阳性,在破坏程度较小的林窗内趋向于恢复原状植被,且恢复速度快。从林窗中心林窗边缘非林窗,地表温度逐渐下降,地表湿度未出现一定梯度。林窗内的植物来源有三种:林窗原有植物根、枝或残留种子,以及外来因素随机带入的种子。由地表向下(至土深60cm),地下生物量递减,成倒金字塔形。     

基于ArcGIS软件的林业制图中面层缝隙处理方法

分析了基于ArcGIS9软件的林业制图中出现面层缝隙的原因,对面层缝隙的检查和去除方法进行了论述,建议软件使用者养成良好的制图习惯,在选择要素时尽量不使用“编辑”工具,而是用“选自要素”工具则可极大地减少面层缝隙的产生．     

雷州半岛高桥红树林内带林窗特征分析——以湛江市廉江高桥红树林保护小区为例

对红树林林窗特征研究,是研究退化红树林生态系统恢复与重建、对次生红树林进行改造、科学管理红树林生态系统的基础。对雷州半岛廉江高桥红树林保护小区内带林窗特征进行了调查,分析林窗大小结构、形成方式、形成木特征等。调查发现:高桥红树林内带林窗主要以小面积林窗为主,分布在实际面积1～10 m2之间和扩展面积1～50 m2之间;林窗主要形成方式是枯死,其次是侧枝损坏;林窗形成木数量范围在1～6株之间,平均每个林窗有2.3株形成木;形成木种类是红海榄、桐花树、木榄、秋茄,各占总比例的5.4%,8.9%,60.7%,25.0%;形成木腐烂等级较高。     

红树林扩展林窗空间营养指数

提出以林窗空间体积代替林窗面积进行林窗研究的方法,研究广东湛江高桥红树林保护区林窗空间体积对林窗秋茄幼苗生长的影响.结果表明:秋茄林窗空间体积能显著影响秋茄幼苗的生长,林窗空间体积为120～160m3时秋茄幼苗可获得最佳生长空间,林窗空间体积过大会抑制秋茄幼苗生长.根据林窗具有影响幼苗高和冠幅的空间特征,结合盖度的生态学含义,提出红树林林窗空间营养指数新概念,给出其定义和量化公式,并进行实例计算,结果表明Ⅳ级(林穿空间体积为120 ～160 m3)林窗空间营养指数最高.     

浅析我国城乡居民收入差距

本文分析了我国城乡收入差距的现状以及产生的主要原因,并根据现实情况从加大农业投入力度、改革户籍制度、建立农村社会保障制度、完善税收政策、加大教育投资方面提出了缩小城乡收入差距的措施。     

刨花板轻质墙伸缩缝的研究

伸缩缝是指为适应气候条件变化引起墙板线性膨胀或收缩而预留的墙体缝隙。本研究通过模拟室内墙体使用状况，探讨了不同龙骨结构墙体模型在不同相对湿度条件下伸缩缝的变化。结果表明，饰面封边脲醛胶刨花板可用作厨房等潮湿环境的墙体材料，未饰面刨花板不适宜直接作为墙体材料，刨花板墙体伸缩缝以预留2．0～3．0mm／m为宜。     

冰雪灾害对九连山常绿阔叶林幼苗更新的影响

以九连山亚热带常绿阔叶林为研究对象,对雪灾林隙与非林隙条件下幼苗的组成、多样性等进行研究,分析冰雪灾害对九连山常绿阔叶林幼苗更新的影响.研究结果表明:(1)幼苗的个体密度在林隙内外差别不大;(2)乔木幼苗在林隙中的重要值大于非林隙,灌木幼苗在非林隙中的重要值大于林隙;(3)主要乔木树种的幼苗对林隙的反应存在很大的差异;...     

Treefall gaps of certified,conventionally managed and natural forests as regeneration sites for Neotropical timber trees in northern Honduras

Forest certification programmes promote sustainable management of the world's forests. Certification can be given to a forest management system that fulfils certain environmental, social and economic criteria.     

Correlations between canopy gaps and species diversity in broad-leaved and Korean pine mixed forests

Regeneration of tree species associated with canopy gaps in broad-leaved Korean pine forests was investigated. Species diversity in gaps and under closed canopy was compared, the relationship between biodiversity and gap structure was analyzed. Results indicate that there were significant differences between tree species diversity in gaps and that under canopy (p<0.01). In terms of Shannon-Wiener index, evenness index, and abundance index, the biodiversity in gap community were higher than those under forest canopy in regeneration layer. In terms of Simpson’s dominance index, the dominance of certain species in the regeneration layer increased from gaps to closed canopy (p<0.01). In contrast, trends of biodiversity changes of succession layer in gaps and under closed canopy were opposite. Tree species diversity of different layers reacted directly to the change of gap size class. For example, Shannon-Wiener index and abundance index is higher and Simpson’s dominance index is the lowest in succession layer of medium-size gap (100–250 m²) in the broad-leaved Korean pine forest of Changbai Mountains. Shannon-Wiener index reached the highest in a size of ≥250 m² and <100 m², reached the lowest in a size of 200–250 m² in the regeneration layer. Simpson’s dominance index reached its maximum when the gap size was between 200 and 250 m². Generally, species of different layers reacted differently to the changes of gap size classes. The gap size class with more seedlings did not correspond to size class containing more medium-size trees. Tree species diversity indices in the two layers behaved reciprocally during the development process of forest gaps. __________ Translated from Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 2005, 16(12): 2,236–2,240 [译自: 应用生态学报, 2005, 16(12): 2,236–2,240]     

沿海地区台湾相思次生林林隙边缘效应的研究

通过对福州地区的台湾相思次生林林隙进行实地调查,运用Shannon-Wiener物种多样性指数、生态优势度指标以及边缘效应强度指数,对其边缘效应现象进行了深入分析.研究结果表明:用物种多样性指数测定的边缘效应强度值为1.016 9～1.182 8,而用生态优势度值测定的边缘效应强度值为0.6844～1.289 6,均值...     

基于图像处理技术的植被半球图像孔隙度提取

冠层孔隙度是评估生态环境的一个重要参数。现阶段主要通过天空遥感以及地面观测对冠层孔隙度进行测量,多使用国外现有研发设备。半球摄影技术在计算植被冠层孔隙度上优势明显,通过对原图像处理,分析最佳阈值,确定最佳视角分环数,统计像素值进而计算冠层孔隙度。并与现有测取设备获取的数据对比,二者有较高拟合度。该方法对反演森林生态系统的重要结构参数提供一种新型方法,为今后研发国内监测设备提供技术支持。