Challenges to Sustainable Development in China: A Review of Six Large-Scale Forest Restoration and Land Conservation Programs

Six national programs—including the Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP), Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP), Desertification Combating Program around Beijing and Tianjin (DCBT), Shelterbelt Network Development Program (SNDP), Wildlife Conservation and Nature Reserve Protection Program (WCNR), and Industrial Timberland Plantation Program (ITPP)—were adopted as means to achieve the Chinese Government sustainable development national policy. While the programs have made promising progress circa 10 yr at the national level, problems exist at the regional and locals levels. This article, therefore, reviews the achievements and problems associated with the programs and their implementations, and provides recommendations for the full realization of the goals of the programs. We recommend a comprehensive strategy for future activities—including promotion of sustainability science, reformation of rigid policies and regulations, adoption of sustainable forestry practices, integrated ecosystem management approach, and formation of new international collaborations.     

巩固退耕还林成果：农户意愿与行为研究进展及对策建议

参与退耕还林的农户是推进工程可持续运行的重要利益相关者。在后退耕时代，关注农户保持退耕还林成果意愿与行为的研究进展并提出相应的对策建议，对于我国退耕还林成果的巩固和长效机制建立具有重要意义。通过文献梳理，文中对农户保持退耕还林成果的意愿和行为及其影响因素进行总结和分析，并在此基础上提出促进农户退耕还林成果保持的理论逻辑与路径；从学术研究的视角指出农户退耕还林成果保持未来需要重点关注的问题，从政策视角提出具有针对性的引导农户保持退耕还林成果的对策建议，可为巩固我国退耕还林成果以及优化完善后续退耕还林政策提供参考。     

Evaluation of economic and social impacts of the sloping land conversion program: A case study in Dunhua County, China

Based on data from a household survey the objective of the study was to evaluate the economic and social impacts of the Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP). The results indicate that the program was, in general, inefficient because productivity and environmental heterogeneity were given scant consideration in Northeast China. While the program has made a clear attempt to retire plots that are susceptible to soil erosion, there is room for better targeting. Fifty eight per cent of the families involved in afforestation considered themselves worse off after participating in SLCP. The families who experienced a decrease in income were more likely to claim that SLCP was an action forcibly imposed by the government. Although 60% supported the project, a fair proportion (16%) plan to return to cultivating forested areas and grassland once the subsidies of the project end in 2018. The government should widen alternative non-farm employment opportunities in order to ensure the sustainability of the program.     

Socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption potential of improved tree fallows in Africa

In many parts of Africa, farmers periodically fallow their land, which is allowing land to lie idle for one or more seasons primarily to restore its fertility. This paper assesses the feasibility, profitability, and acceptability of improved tree fallows, which are the deliberate planting of trees or shrubs in rotation with crops to improve soil fertility. Improved tree fallows are assessed at different stages of intensification, drawing on farmers' experiences in three different settings. In extensive systems where land is plentiful and existing fallows with natural regeneration of vegetation restore soil fertility (southern Cameroon), farmers have little incentive to invest labor in establishing improved fallows. Where population density is higher and fallow periods are decreasing and farmers perceive a decline in soil fertility (eastern Zambia), improved fallows have great potential. In intensive systems where land is unavailable and cropping is often continuous (western Kenya), many farmers find it difficult to fallow land. Even here, there is scope for introducing improved fallows, especially among farmers who have off-farm income. Labor constraints and institutional support were found to greatly influence the feasibility of improved fallows. In intensive systems, low returns to cropping, low base yields, and a high opportunity cost of labor increase the returns to improved fallows. Principal factors associated with acceptability include past perception of soil fertility problems, past use of measures for improving soil fertility, current fallowing, economic importance of annual cropping, and wealth level. Adoption potential may be increased by reducing fallow periods, intercropping trees and crops during the first season, reducing establishment costs, producing higher value by-products, and by encouraging farmers to test improved fallows on high-value crops.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

农区林业实践对我国退耕还林工程的启示

相对于我国退耕还林工程,农区林业的优势在于:经营模式多样,农民经营风险低,行为自主性较强,为农村剩余劳动力(特别是妇女)提供更多就业机会,政府干预较少。我国退耕还林工程应该学习农区林业的成功经验,从政策上做出调整,建立促使农民积极参与的激励机制,并减少政府的直接干预,以降低政策成本。     

Roundwood supply in Norway: micro-level analysis of self-employed forest owners

This paper presents a short-run roundwood supply analysis of self-employed Norwegian forest owners, based on a two-period utility maximising consumption-savings model. The supply function was estimated by applying the Tobit model on an unbalanced panel of approximately 160 Norwegian farmers, from 1976 to 1997, representing a total of 3413 observations. Simultaneity between the single forest owner's harvesting level and his individual tax rate was allowed by estimating simultaneous equations Tobit models. The current roundwood price and standing stock per hectare had significant positive impacts on the supply, while harvesting costs, age of the owner, tax rate and lagged roundwood price (representing expected price) had negative impacts. Price and cost elasticities were relatively sensitive to the prices forecasted for the owners who did not supply roundwood in a given period. These results suggest that price subsidies and operating subsidies, as well as tax relieves, could increase the harvest level, which is considerably lower than the sustainable harvest level. An operating subsidy seems at least as efficient as a price subsidy, while tax reliefs are the least efficient of the three policy means.     

Comparison of Agriculture and Forestry Fiscal Subsidy Policies in China

Great importance has been attached to the “Agriculture-Rural-Farmer” issue by the Communist Party of China (CPC) Central Committee and the State Council of China. In recent years, a series of agricultural supporting subsidy policies, such as direct subsidies to grain, seed, material, and machinery purchases have been enforced, and these policies have greatly promoted the agricultural production and the incremental income of farmers. However, from the perspective of increasing the farmers’ income, although the subsidy coverage is expanding from fields to hilly areas where the farmers have made major contributions to the supply of wood and ecological security, the farmers have a low income without enough aid from the forestry fiscal subsidy policy. Foresters cannot enjoy the same policy support as farmers, because the level of forestry fiscal subsidies is obviously lower than the level of agricultural subsidies. Therefore, based on investigation, this article suggests giving more support to forest workers in terms of the promotion and optimization of forestation, forest tending, seeds and insurance subsidies, and further expanding the forestry subsidies’ category and scope and improving its standards.     

Cost-effective compensation payments: A model based on Buying Green Cover to sustain ecological restoration

Compensation payment schemes play an important role in conservation efforts around the world, particularly for implementing agri-environmental policy. Unfortunately, huge investments such as those conducted in China under the Grain for Green Program (GGP) and elsewhere around the world have historically provided few long-term benefits. To design a cost-effective compensation policy for ecological restoration, the approach must integrate economic and ecological components. Here, we describe such a policy model (“Buying Green Cover”) and compare it with an existing approach, the GGP, using data from China's Northern Shaanxi Province. The modified compensation program pays farmers to build terraced farmland or perform other “green” activities that will also sustain their livelihoods once the program ends. The resulting program costs 30% less than the GGP, and will take only 3 to 7 years to achieve the GGP's 16-year goal of converting sloping farmland into forests and grassland. In contrast with the failures of the GGP and related programs, the new approach improves the management and restoration of rapidly degrading landscapes and should be applicable both in China and around the world.     

湖北省香榧产业发展现状及建议

通过对香榧产业在全国主产区以及本省区域发展现状的调查,分析了该产业在湖北省发展具备的资源优势、生态环境优势和市场潜力优势,针对香榧产业发展中存在的良种缺乏、种植和加工技术滞后、建园成本高,回本时间长的问题,提出了积极争取国家政策和资金支持,以企业为龙头,走公司(合作社)+农户的产业化发展之路;通过科技攻关,解决生产中存...     

Joint ventures in private forestry in Ireland

A study was conducted with the objective of obtaining a profile of farmers who have participated in the Farm Partnership Scheme in Ireland. This scheme is a joint venture between Coillte (The Irish Forestry Board) and farmers. Under the terms of the scheme, Coillte is responsible for the establishment, management and harvesting of the forest plantation on the farmer’s land. The farmer retains ownership of the land, receives premium payments and shares in the harvesting profits. Fifty farmers who joined the Farm Partnership Scheme between 1993–1997 were interviewed in 1999 and a detailed questionnaire was completed. Survey results indicate that the typical farm partner was male, married and aged 50 years or older. Over half of those surveyed had an off-farm job. The most popular reason for farmers opting to participate in the Farm Partnership Scheme was that they did not have sufficient time to undertake the establishment and management of a forest plantation themselves. The average size of forest established under the scheme was 23.7 ha, with Sitka spruce the most popular species planted. The average annual payment under the scheme was €8077. For 46% of those surveyed, the returns from the Farm Partnership Scheme comprised all of their farm income.     

Decentralization of Tree Seedling Supply Systems for Afforestation in the West of Yunnan Province, China

At present, China has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 km² of tree plantations undertaken in 2008. While the prominent role of the central government’s afforestation programs is well-known, little is understood of how the system of tree seedling production and distribution supports afforestation efforts. More importantly, little attention is paid to how small-scale farmers access high quality tree germplasm in the afforestation programs. This paper examines the seedling supply system in the west of Yunnan Province in China by focusing on the three types of tree nurseries (state, collective and individual) that are being operated for the development of smallholder forestry especially in the context of decentralization. The research reveals that forestry decentralization has provided support for smallholder access to high quality planting materials and improved the effectiveness of nursery management. The reform has enabled the engagement of various forms of nurseries and created a hybrid system of state nursery operations. However, the state monopoly over the major seedling supply system using its inherent technical, market, policy and institutional advantages has limited the development of small-scale nurseries. The policy implication of this research is that improvements to the governance structure in the supply system of tree seedling may require more investment in nursery techniques, market information and provision of incentives to enhance small-scale nurseries and to contribute to seedling production.     

“新林科”背景下林草高校劳动教育模式与路径——以北京林业大学心理学系为例

林科高等教育是高等农林教育的重要组成部分,在生态文明和美丽中国建设、服务重大国家战略、草原与林业工作深度融合、推进教育现代化、适应全球新技术革命和产业变革等方面肩负着重要责任和使命。"新林科"建设既是当前我国经济社会发展及高等教育和林草教育发展的内在需要,也是生态文明、美丽中国建设的必然要求。"新林科"建设的愿景目标包括推进林业草原高等教育供给侧改革,整体构建与国家生态文明建设、林业草原高质量发展相适应的学科和专业体系。劳动教育是林科高等教育体系的重要组成部分,是高校实现立德树人根本任务的重要要求。文中在分析林草高校劳动教育存在的课程体系单一且师资力量薄弱、课程内容浅显且教育形式窄化、课程效果有限且考核机制功利化等问题的基础上,以北京林业大学心理学系为例,提出"新林科"背景下林草高校劳动教育可通过构建"劳动教育+"四维培养体系,即"思政劳育" "专业劳育" "实践教育""课程劳育"的多样化组合方式,不断深化大学生劳动认知,提高大学生劳动素养,切实培养出符合"新林科"要求的高素质复合人才。教学实践证明,通过劳动教育培养模式创新,学生的社会服务能力显著增强,专业情怀日趋坚定,就业竞争力逐渐增强,人才培养质量稳步提升。     

农户家庭收支视角的我国集体林权制度改革成效实证分析——基于2010-2015年7省林改监测面板数据

采用国家林业局集体林权制度改革监测2010-2015年连续6年7省的农户数据,利用非平衡面板数据模型分析集体林权制度改革成效及其影响因素。结果表明,集体林权制度改革中期以后农户家庭林业生产经营投资和涉林收入增长乏力;进一步分析其原因发现,农户家庭劳动力数量、林地规模和配套扶持政策会显著促进农户对集体林的经营和投资,而林权不稳定和不完整对农户林业投资有较大的负向影响。应积极稳妥推动流转,培育新型规模经营主体;稳定和加强有关扶持政策,引导农户持续经营投入;完善相关基本立法,强化农户林权的安全完整性。     

Participatory technology development for incorporating non-timber forest products into forest restoration in Yunnan,Southwest China

Indigenous knowledge has become a topic of considerable interest within the research and development environment. Incorporating indigenous knowledge into state-led ‘top-down’ conservation and development programmes, however, is still a great challenge. This paper presents a case from Yunnan, Southwest China, in which indigenous knowledge has been integrated into the development of an agroforestry model with non-timber forest products for the Sloping Land Conservation Programme (SLCP) by using a participatory technology development (PTD) approach. This approach was adopted to increase the likelihood that technologies developed would be suitable for resource-poor households. It is expected that integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge, will lead to positive ecological and economic outcomes. Finally, the paper argues that the integration of indigenous knowledge in both forestry policy formulation and implementation is important in the context of sustainable forest management in mountain areas.     

Household and farm attributes affecting adoption of smallholder timber management practices by tree growers in Gunungkidul region,Indonesia

Farm household characteristics determine the success of programs promoting agroforestry systems and practices. This paper reports household and farm factors affecting the adoption of timber management practices by smallholders in the Gunungkidul region, Central Java, Indonesia. The research used three logistic regression analysis models—based on each household and farm characteristic, and a composite of both together—to identify the key factors influencing farmers’ adoption and management decisions, and their relative importance. A sample of 152 farmers who managed their trees primarily for timber production was compared to a sample of 115 farmers with similar socio-economic characteristics who did not. The household condition and composite models identified both on-farm and off-farm gross incomes as significant factors affecting farmers’ decisions to manage timber trees. The models confirmed that farmers with larger farms, and with higher on- and off-farm incomes, were more likely to manage their trees for timber production. These results have implications for extension programs that promote adoption of commercial timber management by smallholders in the case study and similar regions.     

Farmer participation in reforestation incentive programs in Costa Rica

Reforestation programs are a common policy response among developing country governments in the tropics attempting to deal with environmental and economic problems caused by widespread deforestation. The objective of this paper is to examine participation by small-and medium-sized farms in two reforestation programs undertaken in recent years by one country, Costa Rica, which has been at the forefront of developing country environmental protection efforts. Analysis of a survey of 243 program participants and non-participants shows that farm households participating in reforestation programs had generally larger farm sizes, were dedicated to low labor-intensive, land-extensive agricultural activities, faced significant family on-farm labor constraints, were more heavily dependent on off-farm income sources, and had more extensive contact with local extension efforts. Logistic regression is employed to econometrically identify demographic, economic, and land use determinants of farm household participation in reforestation programs; the implications of these findings are analyzed. The limitations of reforestation programs, especially with regard to management factors and quality of reforested plots, are reviewed. Implications for improving the efficiency of reforestation programs and the merits of other policy alternatives are also discussed.     

Development and Implementation of a Forest Nursery Accreditation Policy at a Local Level in Leyte, Philippines

Through a series of workshops with the stakeholders including nursery operators, tree farmers, staff of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, local government units and the academe, a forestry seedling nursery accreditation policy was developed. The resulting policy was subsequently implemented by the municipal government of Palompon, Leyte. The accreditation policy encouraged nursery operators to follow smallholder-based best management practices for tree nurseries. Implementation of the nursery accreditation policy improved farmers’ knowledge and skills in the production of high quality seedlings, encouraged adoption of BMP for forest nurseries, provided additional source of income for the farmers, enabled members of the groups operating the communal nursery to forge closer relationship with each other, encouraged utilization of farmers’ free time in productive activities, developed farmers’ confidence in producing high quality planting materials, and gained for the farmers favourable attention from various organizations and groups. The Bennett’s hierarchy of project outcomes showed that the implementation of accreditation scheme achieved high levels of outcomes, indicating that it led to substantial improvements in the lives of the farmers.     

要素投入、产业结构对我国重点国有林区经济增长驱动效应的实证分析

持续提升经济增长动力和区域发展活力是新时期有效支撑我国国有林区全面深化体制机制改革、充分确保林区社会稳定、改善居民生计、推进生态建设以及促进产业转型的重要基础。基于2006-2017年东北、内蒙古重点国有林区87个重点森工林业局的相关统计数据,实证探究了要素投入和产业结构2类关键要素对林区经济增长的驱动效应。结果表明:与生产要素投入相比,产业结构（1.411）与林区经济增长关系更为密切,对林区经济增长具有显著的驱动效应;以劳动力（0.096）和资本（0.32）为代表的生产要素投入对林区经济增长的促进作用次之,二者相比,资本在林区经济发展中扮演着更为重要的角色。结合改革、转型与发展的客观实际及实证分析结果,文中提出应分别从优化产业布局、促进投资多元化、提高劳动力供给质量、深化改革配套体系等方面开展有益于加快林区经济增长、推动林区经济转型的实践探索。     

建立我国森林保险运行体系问题初探

介绍发展森林保险的必要性,分析当前我国森林保险业发展面临的供求不足、政策缺陷、技术准备不足等制约因素,介绍国外森林保险发展经验,初步构建我国森林保险运行体系。研究表明,我国森林保险业处于初期发展阶段,要十分重视政府在森林保险体系中应当发挥主导作用,要注重互助合作组织在森林保险中的积极作用,同时要加大森林保险业务范围和产品开发力度,扩大森林保险业供给水平,满足林农的需求。     

Research on Chinese Labor Relations in Economic Transformation

The economic transformation in China has caused significant changes to labor relations. It has made the labor relations more complex and labor conflicts apparent and frequent. However the coordination mechanism has not been developed correspondingly. Based on the empirical research upon current domestic and overseas labor relations, it is concluded that the supply of labor force exceeding the demand of it is the fundamental reasons for explaining labor conflicts in the economic transformation in China. It also suggested that the coordination mechanism of labor conflicts has mechanical dysfunction and the structure of harmonic labor relations would take a long time.