Effect of operating pressures on microirrigation uniformity

The effect of operating pressure heads on water application uniformity in microirrigation submain units was evaluated. Research results show that water application uniformity either increases or slightly decreases as operating pressure head increases in a range when the emission exponent x ≤ 0.5 in most cases. The water application uniformity decreases as operating pressure head increases in a range when the emission exponent x > 0.5. The relationship between operating pressure head and average emitter discharge in submain units can be considered as approximately linear for operating pressure heads in a small range (usually between the allowable minimum and maximum operating pressures of the submain units). These results help to estimate the average emitter discharge rate easily in a submain unit for an increased or decreased operating pressure head when one is attempting to manage emitter discharge dynamically according to the requirements of crop root growth for different periods. Generally, a microirrigation system designed to meet the desired uniformity of water application according to the allowable minimum operating pressure head would be better when x ≤ 0.5 because water application uniformity increases as operating pressure increases if emitter discharges are being managed dynamically. However, a microirrigation system designed to meet the required water application uniformity according to the allowable maximum operating pressure head would be better when x > 0.5 because, in general, water application uniformity increases as operating pressure decreases. Received: 29 November 1999     

平地向坡地转换喷灌水量分布计算模型研究

针对坡地喷灌水量分布实测困难问题,以坡地喷头射程计算公式为基础,依据喷头射流方向总水量守恒原理,构建了喷灌水量分布由平地转换到坡地的计算模型,并通过试验验证了模型的正确性。利用该模型,分析了喷头布置方式、喷头间距、工作压力和坡度等对坡面喷灌水量分布的影响,结果表明,三角形布置有利于坡地单喷头水量分布的叠加,且其组合喷灌均匀度略高于方形布置;随着喷头间距的增大,组合喷灌均匀度呈下降趋势;喷头低压运行时,组合喷灌均匀度相对较低,不能满足喷灌均匀性的要求,随着喷头工作压力的增大,组合喷灌均匀度逐渐增大;在一定坡度范围内,不同坡度对水量分布和组合喷灌均匀度的影响较小。因此,在坡地喷灌系统设计时,若选用雨鸟LF1200型喷头,建议采用三角形布置,喷头间距宜为1.0~1.2倍平地喷头射程,喷头工作压力宜选用300 k Pa。     

Assessing whole-field sprinkler irrigation application uniformity

In order to assess whole-field sprinkler irrigation uniformity, an experiment was conducted to obtain water distribution profiles at 23 different pressures for each of five different sprinklers: Nelson R33, Nelson R33LP, Nelson R33 with road guard, Nelson R33LP with road guard, and Rainbird Mini Paw/LG-3. A mathematical model was developed to account for pressure variation throughout a fixed sprinkler system on a 10-ha field and to evaluate sprinkler irrigation uniformity for the whole field using interpolated water distribution profiles from the experimental data. The relationships between irrigation application uniformity and sprinkler pressure, sprinkler spacing, pressure variation, sprinkler type, and field topography were studied using the model. The results show that the coefficient of uniformity, CU, decreases rapidly when the pressure is below the low end of the manufacturer-recommended range; however, CU changes very little with pressure within the manufacturer-recommended range. The system application uniformity, CU_sys, is usually less when pressure variations at different locations in a field are considered, and a simple previously published equation to predict CU_sys is shown to closely approximate the CU from a more stringent calculation method. It was found that the impact of pressure variation (within the tested ranges) on application uniformity is less than that of the sprinkler spacing. Also, the effect of field topography on sprinkler application uniformity is relatively small for the cases tested herein.     

Design of microirrigation laterals on nonuniform slopes

A method for designing microirrigation laterals on nonuniform slopes was developed using the finite element method. Six representative nonuniform slope patterns were discussed in detail. The design principle was implemented based on the results of computer simulations. It was found that a single lateral is suitable for Pattern I while paired laterals are better for Patterns II ∼ VI in most cases. The diameter of a single lateral or paired laterals may have two solutions for a required uniformity of water application and the length may have multiple solutions. When the required average emitter discharge, required uniformity of water application, and one parameter (either length or diameter) of a single lateral or paired laterals are given, the unknown parameter, best submain position (paired laterals) and operating pressure head can be accurately designed using personal computers. The design procedures are described. Received: 2 November 1995     

线源滴灌土壤湿润均匀性的影响因素试验研究

线源滴灌设计中,滴灌管出流均匀性与土壤湿润均匀性有本质不同,前者仅仅是后者必要的基础,但是要保证线源滴灌土壤湿润均匀性,还需要考虑滴头间距、滴头流量、滴水量和土壤质地的差别。对影响线源滴灌土壤湿润均匀性的主要因素进行了试验研究。试验中所用土壤为沙土和沙壤土;滴头间距为30 cm和50 cm;滴头流量为0.3~4 L/h;滴水量为10~25 L不等。试验表明,沿滴灌管方向的土壤湿润均匀度取决于湿润区的交汇程度,而湿润区的交汇程度又取决于土壤湿润区水平运移宽度和滴头间距。沙土沿滴灌管方向的土壤湿润均匀度随滴水量的增大而显著增大,沙壤土的相应指标则随滴头流量的增大而增大。土壤湿润均匀度随滴头间距的增大而减小。线源滴灌设计时,粘粒含量较少的土壤应该有一定的设计湿润深度和较小的滴头间距才能保证其湿润均匀度满足设计要求。研究结论对完善滴灌技术设计理论有帮助。     

基于弹道理论有风条件下折射式喷头喷灌均匀度研究

为计算有风条件下折射式喷头水量分布及喷灌均匀度,以弹道轨迹理论为基础,依据风速分布模型,建立有风条件下折射式单喷头水量分布计算方法,采用该方法模拟出有风条件下Nelson D3000型喷头倒挂安装方式下水量分布特性,通过与实测资料进行对比,验证了模拟具有较高的准确度,可应用于有风条件下折射式喷头水量分布计算。在此基础上,选用4.76 mm(24号)喷嘴直径,模拟出不工况下单喷头水量分布,计算出组合情况下喷灌均匀度,分析了风速、风向、喷头间距、工作压力和安装高度5种因素对喷灌均匀度的影响,并对蒸发漂移损失进行了分析。结果表明:95%的置信区间下,喷头布置间距对喷灌均匀度的影响最显著,其次是安装高度和喷头工作压力,风速和风向对喷灌均匀度影响不显著。风速、喷头工作压力和安装高度都会对蒸发漂移损失产生影响,其中工作压力影响最大。当选用Nelson D3000型喷头在风速小于6 m/s的环境下喷灌时,应将喷头安装间距固定在2.13~3.04 m范围内。另外,该安装间距范围内,喷头安装高度和喷灌压力增大后,喷灌均匀度增大的效果不明显,因此应采用低压喷灌以降低喷灌系统运行成本;考虑到较高的喷头安装高度会产生较大的蒸发漂移损失,喷灌时还应适当降低喷头安装高度,以提高喷灌水分利用率。     

组合方式对喷灌均匀度的影响研究

【目的】研究喷头不同组合方式对喷灌均匀度的影响,得到最佳的组合方式。【方法】根据FYRB471 型喷头在不同工作压力下间距1 m采样所得的无风喷洒降水强度,针对喷头分别呈正三角形、正方形、正六边形等组合方式,拟合出了喷头在不同工作压力及组合间距下的降水强度,采用克里斯琴森均匀系数计算了相应的喷灌均匀度。【结果】当工作压力一定时,不同组合方式下的喷灌均匀度都随喷头间距的增大而减小;当喷头间距一定时,组合均匀度与工作压力正相关。当间距小于5.5 m时,不同工作压力下3 种组合方式的均匀度相差不大;当间距大于5.5 m时,随着工作压力或者组合间距的增大,正三角形组合方式所提供的喷灌均匀度最优,正方形组合方式次之,正六边形组合方式最低。正三角形组合方式喷头间距变大时,喷灌均匀度降低;工作压力过大或间距过小时会增加成本,因此农业生产可兼顾考虑效率和成本选择喷头的组合方式以及工作压力,制定合理的喷灌方案。【结论】当组合间距介于5.5 m和8.5 m之间,工作压力介于200 kPa 与320 kPa 时,应考虑采用正三角形组合方式,此时的喷灌均匀度最高,达80%以上;当组合间距小于等于5.5 m时,不同工作压力下的均匀度基本相同,应考虑采用正六边形组合方式,单个喷灌设备覆盖范围最广,成本最低。     

考虑水滴运动蒸发的喷灌水量分布模拟

提出了有风条件下喷头水滴运动与喷灌水量分布模拟方法,并利用Visual Basic 6.0开发了喷灌水量分布模拟软件.该软件在已知单喷头的径向水量分布数据时,可以模拟出不同风速、风向、空气温湿度等环境条件下单喷头或多喷头组合的喷灌水量分布,计算出喷灌系统的组合喷灌强度、喷灌均匀系数和蒸发损失率.以9708A型喷头为例,分别对工作压力为0.20、0.25和0.30 MPa下单喷头径向水量分布以及喷灌系统组合间距为14 m x 14 m和14 m×12 m时的喷灌水量分布进行了模拟,并与实测值进行了对比,结果表明:模拟的单喷头径向水量分布与实测值总体一致,由模拟水量分布推算的喷头流量与实测值的相对误差为0.83％ ～8.01％;喷灌均匀系数模拟值与实测值的相对误差为0.69％～6.36％,蒸发损失率模拟值为0.51％ ～ 1.75％,小于实测的水量损失率.模拟了不同组合间距下的喷灌水量分布,得到的喷灌均匀系数模拟值与其他软件比较,相对误差在0.11％ ～2.44％之间.     

射流式喷头水量分布动态仿真及试验

【目的】研究工作压力,喷头组合间距、组合斱式和旋转速度对射流式喷头及多喷头组合喷灌均匀性系数(CU)和分布均匀系数(DU)的影响。【斱法】采用不同工作条件下单喷头和多喷头组合喷灌水量分布的动态仿真代码,对射流式喷头开展了水力性能试验;研究了射流式喷头在不同工作压力及安装高度条件下对喷灌强度、水量分布的影响;建立了水量峰值强度与工作压力的回归关系式;模拟了单喷头在正斱形和三角形组合喷灌下的空间水量分布。【结果】喷头在1.5 m安装高度、100~300 kPa压力条件下,水量峰值集中在5 mm/h附近,标准偏差(STD)为0.23。喷头在100 kPa工作压力,安装高度为1.1、1.3 m的水量峰值强度分别可高达8.9、10.5mm/h。不同工作压力下的单喷头喷灌的DU和CU标准偏差分别为15.5%、9.3%,且DU对压力的变化相对更为敏感。【结论】在实际喷灌工程中正斱形组合喷灌的间距应小于8m,三角形组合喷头之间的间距应布置在8m附近,此时的喷灌均匀度最高,单个喷灌设备覆盖范围最广,成本最低。     

Field evaluation of fertigation uniformity as affected by injector type and manufacturing variability of emitters

Fertigation with microirrigation systems is increasing in popularity. Uniformity of fertigation is important for many reasons. Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of injector types and emitters on fertigation uniformity by simultaneously measuring the distributions of water application, solution concentration, and fertilizer applied within a subunit of microirrigation system. Three conventionally used injectors, a water-driven piston proportional pump, a venturi device, and a differential pressure tank, were evaluated with three different emitters. The results indicated that both manufacturing variability of emitters and injector types had a very significant effect on the uniformity of fertilizer applied, while the uniformity of water application was mainly dependent on emitter type. The uniformity of solution concentration was dependent on injection methods. Emitters having a higher manufacturer’s variation produced a more nonuniform distribution of water application and fertilizer applied. For a given emitter type, a differential pressure tank produced considerably higher coefficients of variation (Cv) for water application and fertilizer applied than a proportional pump or a venturi injector because a differential pressure tank released fertilizer in a decreasing rate with time. To obtain a uniform fertigation distribution, an injector that can inject fertilizers in a constant rate is recommended. The relationship between water application uniformity and fertigation uniformity for a microirrigation system was established for different injection methods. Cv for fertilizer applied was very close to water application Cv for a microirrigation system using a proportional pump or a venturi injector as an injection device. However, fertilizer Cv for a differential pressure tank was approximately double of the water application Cv. The injection method and injector performance should therefore be considered in the design of microirrigation systems.     

Assessing whole-field uniformity of stationary sprinkler irrigation systems

The procedure established in the literature for the evaluation of stationary sprinkler irrigation systems is limited in space and time since it is based on a sample of precipitation taken around one sprinkler during a given period of the whole irrigation event. This procedure also ignores what happens in the soil after water infiltrates. A model of the drop trajectory and of the water distribution pattern is formulated here for simulating precipitation from single sprinklers. The operating pressure determines sprinkler flow and maximum throw. Wind and evaporation distort the distribution patterns. The water distribution of individual sprinklers is overlapped to generate precipitation over the whole field and to calculate a coefficient of uniformity. Field effective uniformity is then calculated by averaging precipitation over the extension of plant roots or water redistribution within the soil profile. Application of the model has shown the impact of system management and design, field topography and wind on irrigation uniformity. Management factors such as lateral operation time or riser inclination may account for a large part of the field precipitation variations. A rough topography may also reduce uniformity significantly. Wind speed is important when it exceeds 1.8–2 m s^–1. The allowable maximum pressure loss of 20% fixed as a design criterion seems an overly strict limit when other factors may overcome pressure loss as sources of non-uniformity. The sources of non-uniformity have different scales of variation. Large-scale sources, such as lateral operation time or pressure loss, are not dampened by the crop or soil. Sources of smaller-scale variation, such as wind or inclination of the sprinkler riser, are better compensated by the crop and soil. The application of this kind of model to the design and management of sprinkler irrigation systems is discussed. Received: 9 May 1997     

圆形喷灌机施肥灌溉均匀性及蒸发漂移损失

为了评估圆形喷灌机施肥灌溉均匀性和蒸发漂移损失量,通过测试圆形喷灌机入机压力为0.15 MPa时,与喷灌机连接的计量隔膜泵吸肥流量与工作比例间的关系.分析了计量隔膜泵吸肥性能,并通过田间试验测试圆形喷灌机水力性能,评估了不同肥料类型和肥液浓度的施肥灌溉均匀系数及蒸发漂移损失量.结果表明:计量隔膜泵吸肥流量实测值和理论值的标准均方根误差为8.9%,且流量控制精度在工作比例为60%~100%时(相对误差|RE|≤5.6%)远高于工作比例为20%~40%时(|RE|≥13.3%).圆形喷灌机行走速度百分数为100%时,径向肥液水深与施肥量的修正赫尔曼-海因均匀系数基本相等,其变化分别为80%~85%和78%~86%,均小于径向肥液浓度的均匀系数96%~99%.不同肥料类型和肥液浓度处理间灌水、肥液浓度均匀系数差异不具有统计学意义.当风速小于2 m/s时,利用圆形喷灌机进行施肥灌溉产生的蒸发漂移损失量占灌水量的比例为1.5%~10.1%.     

低压雾化喷头雾化性能试验

为了进一步了解低压雾化喷头的雾化性能,为以后优化喷头性能提供理论依据,进行了相关试验.选取低压雾化喷头的孔径为0.5,0.8,1.0 mm,压力为0.08,0.11,0.14 MPa,喷头和锥盘间距为2,4,6 mm,锥盘夹角为150°,120°,90°等4个参数,设计并进行了正交试验.通过测量3种不同孔径的喷头在0~2.4 m雾化射程时的雾化水量分布特性,并对喷头以正方形组合方式和三角形组合方式时在不同组合间距下的均匀性进行分析,在此结果上进行极差分析,得到各因素影响趋势.结果表明:径向水量分布呈现正态分布,最高雾化水量点出现在接近雾化射程末端,且与喷嘴孔径成正相关;与三角形组合方式相比,正方形组合方式较好;影响雾化射程的主次顺序依次为孔径、锥盘夹角、压力、间距,对三角形组合均匀性系数的影响主次顺序依次为锥盘夹角、孔径、间距、压力,正方形组合均匀性系数的影响主次顺序依次为锥盘夹角、孔径、压力、间距.     

Wind effects on solid set sprinkler irrigation depth and yield of maize (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Zea mays</Emphasis>)

A field experiment was performed to study the effect of the space and time variability of water application on maize (Zea mays) yield when irrigated by a solid set sprinkler system. A solid set sprinkler irrigation layout, typical of the new irrigation developments in the Ebro basin of Spain, was considered. Analyses were performed (1) to study the variability of the water application depth in each irrigation event and in the seasonal irrigation and (2) to relate the spatial variability in crop yield to the variability of the applied irrigation and to the soil physical properties. The results of this research showed that a significant part of the variability in the Christiansen coefficient of uniformity (CU), and wind drift and evaporation losses were explained by the wind speed alone. Seasonal irrigation uniformity (CU of 88%) was higher than the average uniformity of the individual irrigation events (CU of 80%). The uniformity of soil water recharge was lower than the irrigation uniformity, and the relationship between both variables was statistically significant. Results indicated that grain yield variability was partly dictated by the water deficit resulting from the non-uniformity of water distribution during the crop season. The spatial variability of irrigation water depth when the wind speed was higher than 2 m s^–1 was correlated with the spatial variability of grain yield, indicating that a proper selection of the wind conditions is required in order to attain high yield in sprinkler-irrigated maize.     

基于MATLAB全射流喷头组合喷灌计算模拟

对国内原创全射流喷头组合喷灌进行研究后,提出了一种分析处理喷头水量分布数据以实现三维可视化编程的方法.研究表明,MATLAB语言可以方便可靠地将喷头径向水量分布数据转换为网格型数据,并绘制出单喷头和喷头组合的三维水量分布图.通过插值叠加求出各网格点总降水深,求出不同组合间距系数下的全射流喷头组合均匀系数,实现计算结果可视化.根据模拟分析,提出了组合间距系数值：正方形布置时为1.2,各喷头均匀系数平均值为82.4%;三角形布置时为1.5,各喷头均匀系数平均值为85.7%.另外认为,MATLAB语言编程进行喷头喷洒分析具有功能强大,方便快捷,可视性强等优点,适用于任何喷头水量分布的分析.     

局部灌水方式下玉米根系对干旱及复水的生理生化响应

采用分根装置,在均匀灌溉、固定灌溉和交替灌溉3种方式下,分区测定轻、中、重度3种胁迫条件下以及复水后玉米根系的丙二醛MDA含量、过氧化物酶POD和超氧化物歧化酶SOD活性。不同于以往的分根交替灌溉研究的内容,重点研究在局部灌水条件下玉米根系对干旱及复水的生理生化响应。研究结果表明,无论干旱还是复水后,固定灌水条件下,作物根系受活性氧伤害较之均匀灌水增大,而交替灌水使作物受活性氧的危害减小,这对交替灌溉的节水效应的进一步研究具有重要的意义。     

Irrigation uniformity related to horizontal extent of root zone

Summary Harmonic analysis is used to derive the component waves of a given water distribution map. These components are then subjected to smoothing by root systems of various sizes, to obtain the effective variances and uniformity coefficients for these root systems. This approach helps to explain, for instance, why the effective uniformity by trickle irrigation is high, while the detailed actual distribution is very nonuniform; why the actual uniformity of under-canopy sprinkling of orchards need not be very high; or why it is usually better to have the rows of field crops parallel to the shorter spacing of the sprinklers. It is observed that ordinary distribution maps contain little variance in the shorter wave-lengths, thus suggesting a reduction in the number of collectors necessary for pattern determination. Another conclusion based on the same observation is that when plants spacing is half the sprinkler's spacing, a spatial shift between the crop and the irrigation system may markedly affect the effective uniformity.     

Water use efficiency of controlled alternate irrigation on root-divided maize plants

A new method of irrigation was designed and tested for its water use efficiency (WUE). Maize plants were grown in pots with their roots divided and established into two or three separated containers of which irrigation and soil drying were controlled alternately. Results showed that when the two halves of the root system were alternatively exposed to a drying soil and a soil with its water content maintained above 55% or 65% of its field capacity, water consumption was reduced by 34.4–36.8% and the total biomass production was reduced by only 6–11%, when compared to the well-irrigated plants. Significant increase in WUE, root to shoot ratio and stomatal resistance for water diffusion were observed as a result of such treatment. Leaf transpiration was reduced substantially while the rate of photosynthesis and leaf water content were not significantly altered. The results were also compared to root-divided plants of which irrigation was fixed to one container only and showed that a better WUE, root development and distribution, shoot biomass production were achieved by the alternate drying and rewetting. We conclude that the controlled alternate irrigation (CAI) is an effective and water-saving irrigation method and may have the potential to be used in the field.     

基于土壤入渗水量分布特性的微喷灌系统组合分析

通过显色示踪方法研究了微喷条件下入渗水量分部模式，在此基础上探讨了微喷组合布置形式。试验结果显示喷洒水量分布为2次曲线情况下，入渗后水量分部符合4次曲线；同时分布峰值位置沿半径方向向外侧偏移，而含水率变化量在垂直方向分布差异性较小。依据实际入渗水量分布情况，采用正方形组合方案对系统的灌溉效率进行评价，组合间距为1.1倍有效喷程时，均匀系数最大。基于入渗水量分布进行微喷灌组合将能有效地提高灌水质量和效率。     

Sprinkler water distributions as affected by winter wheat canopy

Sprinkler uniformity is often used to evaluate irrigation system performance. The measurement of uniformity is generally made from one test when no crop is present. However, a developing crop canopy has significant potential to modify the distribution of water applied during irrigation. This study was conducted to evaluate the influence of a winter wheat canopy on sprinkler uniformity and on canopy-intercepted water by measuring water distributions above and below the canopy. The Christiansen uniformity coefficient (CU) was calculated on both a daily and a cumulative basis. The CU was higher below the canopy than above the canopy. Canopy-intercepted water, which is here defined as the sum of canopy storage and stemflow, increased with increasing water application depth. Sprinkler uniformity had no significant effect on the mean amount of water interception by the canopy. The ratio of water interception to total water application depth for the whole irrigation season was between 0.24 and 0.28. The CUs calculated from the cumulative depth caught above and below the canopy are larger than the averages of individual CU values during the irrigation season. Measurement of individual CUs during the irrigation season therefore underestimates the cumulative CU. Experimental results also demonstrated that sprinkler uniformity in this study had little effect on crop yield. Received: 1 February 2000