Exante assessment of dual-purpose sweet potato in the crop–livestock system of western Kenya: A minimum-data approach

Mixed crop–livestock systems have a crucial role to play in meeting the agricultural production challenges of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. Sweet potato is seen as a potential remedial crop for these farmers because of its high productivity and low input requirements, while its usefulness for both food and feed (dual-purpose) make it attractive in areas where land availability is declining. In this paper, we develop and apply a ‘minimum-data’ methodology to assess exante the economic viability of adopting dual-purpose sweet potato in Vihiga district, western Kenya. The methodology uses and integrates available socio-economic and bio-physical data on farmers’ land use allocation, production, and input and output use. Spatially heterogeneous characteristics of the current system regarding resources and productivity are analyzed to assess the profitability of substituting dual-purpose sweet potato for other crops currently grown for food and feed. Results indicate that a substantial number of farmers in the study area could benefit economically from adopting dual-purpose sweet potato. Depending on assumptions made, the adoption rate, expressed as the percentage of the total land under adopting farms, is between 55% and 80%. The analysis shows that the adoption rate is likely to vary positively with the average total yield of dual-purpose sweet potato, the harvest index (the ratio between tuber and fodder yields), the price of milk, and the nutritional value of available fodder. This study demonstrates the usefulness of the minimum-data methodology and provides evidence to support the hypothesis that dissemination of the dual-purpose sweet potato could help improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers operating in mixed crop–livestock systems in east Africa.     

Farm types for beef production and their economic success in a mountainous province of northern Vietnam

The objective of this study was to compare the management and economic success of beef production by three types of farm in northwestern Vietnam. The potential of household farms to supply beef for the market and their competition with large farms were examined.The fieldwork was done in 2007 on 73 farms consisting of 58 small mixed farms (small farms), 10 medium mixed farms (medium farms) and 5 specialised large-scale beef farms (large farms) in Son La province. The three types of farm differed in ethnicity (Thai, H’mong, and Kinh), remoteness (lowland, highland), production objectives (subsistence, market output), degree of specialization (mixed farm, specialised beef farm) and integration of production (single farmers, cooperative). Data on biological productivity, inputs and outputs, and the social contribution of cattle production were collected by household and key person interviews, participatory rural appraisal tools and cattle body measurements. Economic values were derived by assessment of market or replacement costs. Quantitative data analysis was done with linear models (PROC GLM) in the SAS software (version 9.1).Lowland small farms had higher costs for cattle production than the highland farms (0.8 Mill. VND head⁻¹ year⁻¹ compared with 0.02 Mill. VND head⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively). The large farms had high production costs, with an average of 2.5-3.6 Mill. VND head⁻¹ year⁻¹. Cattle brought high benefits of non-cash values to the household farms. The total revenue from cattle was in the range 4.5-11.5 Mill. VND head⁻¹ year⁻¹, which depended on the use of non-market functions of cattle on the household farm. The value of net benefit/kg live weight (LW) of lowland small farms with an average of 39,000 VND/kg LW was significantly higher than that of the medium and small farms in the highlands (26,000 VND/kg LW). However, the small farms kept fewer cattle than the medium farms (average of 2-4 cattle/farm compared with 9 cattle/farm, respectively) because of forage and labour shortages and have no option to further develop cattle production. Keeping larger numbers of cattle based on available natural pasture brought high benefit from stock value as farm liquidity to only the medium farms. This was the most promising type of farm for future development of beef production, given its actual success and the availability of underutilised resources. Large-scale farms suffered high economic losses of 0.3-1.4 Mill. VND cattle⁻¹ year⁻¹, due to the lack of professional management, high feed costs and low animal performance, and showed no potential for developing cattle production.     

Economic evaluation of current and alternative dual-purpose cattle systems for smallholder farms in the central Peruvian highlands

In four communities in the Peruvian Andes, 56 farmers were interviewed every three months over a period of one year. Information linked to milk and cattle production such as activities, inputs (labour, means of production, capital) and outputs (milk, cheese, animals) were recorded using a closed-ended questionnaire. The communities were divided into two groups with low (LC) and high (HC) level of dependence on income from milk and animal sales. The survey results showed that cattle production on the LC farms was based on less land and a smaller herd (3.32 ha/farm, 1.06 lactating cows) than on HC farms (10.28 ha/farm, 4.19 lactating cows). The data from the survey and the results of the nutritional analyses of 74 feed samples were introduced into a model that applied linear programming techniques in order to estimate the farm household income under the current production systems and evaluate the economic impact of improved forage varieties for hay production. Furthermore, the economic viability of other changes in fodder and herd management was tested. Both groups were characterised by a dual-purpose system generating a gross income from the sale of both, milk and live animals in the amount of -21 (LC) and +1057 US$/farm and year (HC). Due to higher production costs for forages and better access to markets, LC communities were characterised by an integrated crop–livestock system whereas in the HC group income was mainly based on livestock. Introduction of improved and fertilized barley for hay production, was estimated to increase the annual farm income to 127 and 1257 US$ for LC and HC, respectively. This increase was accompanied by an increment of the animal number. Maintaining the animal number but increasing the milk production/cow by feeding additional forage was a less profitable option generating 50 and 1221 US$ of income per farm and year for LC and HC, respectively. The production of hay was limited by high costs (external labour) in LC communities and the restricted availability of family labour in the HC group. A scenario based on the use of improved cow genotypes led to the highest estimated annual farm income for HC communities (1280 US$) but was less favourable for LC. The modelling results showed that the best development strategy depends on various factors such as production costs, access to the markets and to irrigation and availability of different feed resources.     

A method for exploring sustainable development options at farm scale: a case study for vegetable farms in South Uruguay

The methodology presented in this paper aims at analysing whether there is room for improvement of vegetable farmers’ income in Canelón Grande (Uruguay), while reducing soil erosion and improving physical and biological soil fertility, and to gain insight in the influence of farmers’ resource availability on the opportunities for sustainable development. The (generic) approach we developed to support re-design of farming systems in this region is unique in dealing with complex temporal interactions in crop rotations and spatial heterogeneity on farms in one integrated method, while revealing trade-off between economic and environmental objectives. Rather than an arbitrary sub-set, all feasible crop rotations were generated, using a tool named ROTAT. The crop rotations were combined with a range of production techniques according to pre-defined design criteria to create a wide variety of alternative production activities at the field scale. We used process-based simulation models supplemented with empirical data and expert knowledge to quantify inputs and outputs of production activities. We developed a mixed integer linear programming model (MILP), named Farm Images, to allocate production activities to a farm with land units differing in soil quality, while maximising or minimising socio-economic and environmental objectives, subject to constraints at the farm level. Production activities comprised current practices as well as activities new to the area. We used Farm Images to design farm systems for seven existing farms in Canelón Grande with different resource availability. The farm systems designed by the model had higher family income than current systems for six of the seven farms studied. The estimated average soil erosion per ha decreased by a factor of 2–4 in the farm systems proposed compared to the current systems, while the rate of change of soil organic matter increased from negative in the current systems to +130 to +280 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in the proposed farm systems. The degree to which the objectives could be achieved was strongly affected by farm resource endowment, i.e., particularly by the fraction of the area irrigated, soil quality and labour availability per ha. The study suggests that decreasing the area of vegetable crops by introducing long crop rotations with pastures and green manure during the inter-crop periods and integrating beef cattle production into the farm systems would often be a better strategy than the actual farmers’ practice.     

Cattle are cash generating assets for mixed smallholder farms in the Eastern Amazon

The presence of cattle in the Amazon region is controversial in terms of their ecological suitability and profitability compared with crops. Nevertheless, they are widely distributed in the study area in north-eastern Pará and, contrary to the common image of cattle on large ranches, a high proportion of them are kept on smallholder farms. To explain their presence, cattle are assumed to have benefits beyond physical production, such as complementing resource use or representing capital. To test this hypothesis, the costs and benefits of the three main agricultural activities, cattle, cassava and black pepper production, in terms of land, labour and capital productivity, were recorded in 37 small farms over a period of 15 months. To provide a longer perspective, benefits and costs of these activities were calculated for their assumed lifetime, which in the case of cattle, assumed a stable herd, derived from a deterministic herd model. The resultant values for land, labour and capital productivity of cattle were much lower than the values derived from direct observations during the study period, and were not as high as those for cassava and black pepper. Furthermore, the analysis of resource use in the farms showed that cattle production was not usually integrated with cropping activities, did not improve the use of available labour, and competed for land. Therefore, there had to be a reason for keeping cattle beyond their physical productivity. It was deduced to be their functional quality. Cattle could be disposed of quickly and easily at any time, in order to acquire large sums of cash or the equivalent in kind. The liquidity derived from keeping living stock was not matched by other agricultural activities or by the financial market. Hence, cattle turned out to be the best instrument of finance for the smallholder. Farmers were not interested in the continuous development of their herds, or sustainable production practices, and favoured low input management. Consequently, development plans relying on long-term, continuous commitments to pasture and cattle management are inappropriate. Instead, research and extension work should focus on simple, flexible and low-cost improvements to cattle keeping on crop-livestock smallholder farms, until credit programmes are available that replace the financing function of cattle.     

A comparative analysis of water application and energy consumption at the irrigated field level

Most government policies and community perception of the irrigation sector promotes the conversion from gravity-fed to pressurised irrigation methods as a way of reducing water consumption by the irrigation sector. However, optimising for one aspect of a system can have unintended resource and environmental consequences e.g. an increase in energy consumption patterns of irrigated crops. Two Australian irrigation areas were studied: a surface-water supplied region in New South Wales; and a groundwater dependent region in South Australia. The water and energy budgets for crop production from land preparation to harvest were quantified on several farms. Converting from flood to pressurised systems resulted in a reduction in water application of between 10% and 66%. However, in the surface-water supplied region, it also resulted in energy consumption being increased by up to 163%. In the groundwater dependent region, energy consumption was reduced by 12% to 44%. There is potential to reduce energy consumption due to increased water use efficiency, resulting in less water being pumped due to efficiency gains. Therefore, to optimise energy and water use, it is recommended that pressurised irrigation systems be used in areas requiring pressurised extraction of groundwater, while efficient gravity based irrigation methods, coupled with good management practices, be promoted in surface-water supplied areas.     

Sustainability of bean production systems on steep lands in Costa Rica

Responding to changes in rural-urban linkages and government policies, bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production systems in Costa Rica are undergoing transitions. Impacts of changes in bean production systems on environmental and economic sustainability were analysed at the field, farm and policy levels. A combination of interviews, agronomic surveys, on-farm experiments, and secondary information was used. Changes in agronomic and economic conditions over time were assessed by conducting agronomic surveys and experiments on farms representing a range of land-use intensities. Trade-offs between productivity and stability were quantified using Modified Stability Analysis. The adoption of land and agrochemical-intensive methods by resource-poor farmers cultivating steep lands resulted in decreased environmented and economic sustainability. Farmers with adequate resources were able to maintain economic viability by transferring land out of beans and into other commodities, particularly cattle. However, this shift in resource use decreased social equity by decreasing farm labour opportunities for smallholders and landless farmers and diminishing land available for tenants. These studies indicate that the impact of technology introduction on farming system sustainability can be assessed effectively by conducting integrated socioeconomic and agronomic analyses across farms representing various land-use practices and intensities.     

A dynamic bio-economic model to simulate optimal adjustments of suckler cow farm management to production and market shocks in France

Tactical adjustments to seasonal weather conditions and beef price may generate additional income or avoid losses in French beef cattle farms. Due to the length of the suckler cow production cycle, adjustment decisions may impact not only on current production and profit but also on future farm outcomes. To better understand the consequences of shocks and subsequent production adjustments on the evolution of farm earnings and production over time, we built a dynamic recursive bio-economic farm model. Our model introduced simultaneously the possibility of adjusting herd size and herd composition, diet composition and diet energy content, as well as crop rotation, haymaking and feed stocks, taking into account both their short- and long-term consequences. An application is provided to test impacts of crop yield and beef price shocks of different intensities. Main simulated adjustments to face unfavourable weather shocks are (1) purchased feed in order to maintain animal production objectives, and (2) area of pasture harvested for haymaking. Very severe beef price shocks induce forced sales. Weather shocks affect farm net profit not only of the current year but also of the following years. Profit losses caused by unfavourable weather conditions are not compensated by gains in favourable ones and this differential is amplified when intensity of shocks rises.     

基于Web的奶牛场管理信息系统

介绍基于JSP+SPrvlet+Javabean模式开发的、适合中型奶牛场使用的奶牛场管理信息系统,分为牛群管理、产乳管理、牛群繁殖、统计与分析、养牛场管理及系统管理功能6个方面,可以对奶牛及奶牛场各种技术数据进行分析与综合整理,是一种实用、经济和操作简便的奶牛场信息资料管理系统.     

奶牛智能饲喂关键技术研究

随着现代规模化养殖新格局的初步形成,奶牛智能养殖装置的不断涌现,奶牛饲喂技术发展呈现出信息化、精细化、智能化的趋势。通过分析奶牛全混合日粮饲喂技术与奶牛自动饲喂装备系统的特点和应用情况,对国内外奶牛养殖技术装备进行总结,国内中小型养殖场仍存在自动化水平较低、饲喂技术与装备结合不完善、饲喂效率较低等问题;大规模养殖场面临核心技术需进口、养殖成本与装备研制成本较高的问题;国外的智能养殖装备技术相对成熟,相关装备系统已经大范围使用。此外结合国内外研究现状提出我国饲喂技术装备的改进方向,针对实际养殖情况对装备技术进行研发,促进我国自主装备及核心技术的推广应用,推进奶牛养殖装备技术向精细化、智能化发展,切实提升我国奶牛养殖水平。     

家畜智能养殖设备和饲喂技术应用研究现状与发展趋势

家畜智能养殖设备是智能农机装备的组成部分之一,是国际农业装备产业技术竞争的焦点。本文重点围绕家畜智能养殖设备与饲喂技术在实践中的应用,进行了系统的性能特点分析。目前家畜智能养殖设备的开发对象主要针对猪和奶牛,主要研发的系统包括妊娠母猪电子饲喂站、哺乳母猪精准饲喂系统、奶牛精准饲喂系统和挤奶机器人等。家畜智能养殖设备的工业化应用必须与养殖模式、畜舍结构布局结合起来,才能发挥设备的使用效率,同时从满足动物的福利出发,与动物生理、生长及行为结合起来,形成设备与动物的互作和相互适应。最后指出了智能设备的研究必须与畜牧业生产的理论、目标产品的功能驱动及养殖方式的创新协调一致,要不断地更新换代,才能助推畜牧业的转型升级。     

牛用恒温饮水装置研究进展及应用建议

水在维持家畜正常生理功能活动、营养代谢和生产性能方面起着重要作用,而供给充足、温度适合和清洁的饮水是提高牲畜生长性能的有效手段之一。为提高西北地区寒冷季节牲畜养殖水平和经济效益,解决牲畜饮用温水问题,介绍了牛用恒温加热饮水装置研究现状,分析了电加热、太阳能加热、沼气加热及其他加热饮水装置的应用现状及优缺点,展望了未来发展趋势,并对西北不同地区养牛场恒温加热饮水方式提出建议。      

A participatory, farming systems approach to improving Bali cattle production in the smallholder crop-livestock systems of Eastern Indonesia

Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) account for about one quarter of the total cattle population in Indonesia and are particularly important in the smallholder farming enterprises of the eastern islands. The population of Bali cattle is declining in most areas of Eastern Indonesia because demand for beef cattle exceeds the local capacity to supply these animals. Indonesian agencies recognise that new strategies are required to improve the productivity of Bali cattle and to address major constraints relating to animal husbandry and nutrition. To date, the adoption of cattle improvement technologies has been historically slow in Indonesia, as is the case elsewhere.This paper reports on key findings from a long-term study conducted between 2001 and 2009 with smallholder households from six villages in South Sulawesi and Central Lombok, to develop and test an approach for evaluating and increasing the adoption of cattle and forage improvement technologies. The approach is based on the principles of farming systems and participatory research and involved four main steps; (1) benchmarking the current farming system; (2) identifying constraints to cattle production and strategies to address them; (3) desktop modelling of the production and economic impacts of selected strategies; and (4) on-farm testing of the most promising strategies with 30 participant smallholder households.The approach was found to be successful based on: (1) sustained adoption of a package of best-bet technologies by the 30 participating households; (2) evidence of positive production, social and economic impacts; and (3) significant diffusion of the cattle improvement technologies to other households in the project regions.     

Prospects of micro-irrigation in India

The demand for land and water in India is continuously escalating due to increased population. The land can be used intensively on even up to 3 crops in a year for which water is needed. Therefore water management and increased production are very essential and crucial for the development.Research studies conducted in India by various institutions have indicated that water saving is about 40–80% and the yield increase is up to 100% for different crops by using micro-irrigation. The incremental benefit-drip cost ratio (B_I/C_D) worked out for various crops ranges from 1.35 to 13.35 excluding water saving and 2.78 to 32.32 including water saving. It has also been proved that drip irrigation, which is a type of micro-irrigation, is technically feasible and socially acceptable not only for large farms but also in small and marginal farms.Drip irrigation can be adopted to large areas irrigated from wells especially for wide spaced high value crops. This method is also suitable for hilly and undulated tracts, coastal sand terrains, and to a great extent in the water scarce areas of South and Western India. About 18 million ha are under fruit, vegetables and plantation crops and the present area under drip is only about 55,000 ha. Therefore the potential and prospects of drip irrigation is very high in the coming years.     

Some efficiency measures for analysis of the productive potential of Indonesian goats

Goat-keeping in Indonesia is characterized by a stagnant population, intensive production systems, production primarily by smallholders, and a strong product demand. Research is underway to identify production constraints under typical smallholder systems using a farming systems approach.Problem identification has focused on productivity problems and then breaking down the various sources of the productivity gap. Several productivity measures are reviewed and their usefulness for problem identification discussed. Smallholder survey data from selected locations in West Java are then used to identify productivity gaps existing between these farms, larger specialized farms and experiment stations.     

Adaptation to Agenda 2000 (CAP reform) and optimisation of the farming system of French suckler cattle farms in the Charolais area: a model-based study

French suckler farmers need advice on the implications of the Agenda 2000 CAP reform for their farms and, in particular, on the incentives it offers for a more extensive mode of production. To support the dialogue between advisers and farmers, and thus help farmers with their decision-making, we constructed a linear programming (LP) model that optimises the farming system of the northern Massif Central Charolais suckler cattle farms, which may be either mixed (crop-livestock) or specialised (livestock). This model, called Opt'INRA, incorporated all of the production activities presently encountered in this zone, together with the constraints of the CAP premium attributions. We used it to study how, on the basis of their 1999 data, two farms, representing two situations frequently encountered in the Charolais area (a mixed crop-livestock farm and a specialised livestock farm), could best adapt to Agenda 2000.According to the model, for both of the farms studied, the economic impact of Agenda 2000 is relatively low, albeit negative. The adaptation of the system when possible does not lead to a significant increase in the gross margin of this farms. Agenda 2000 did not encourage farmers to extensify their farming system. On the other hand, this CAP reform discourages them from intensifying.     

Characteristics and economic viability of milk production in the smallholder farming systems in The Gambia

Domestic milk production has been for a long time hindered by many factors including lack of interest from decision makers, distorted economic policy and biotechnical constraints. For the last 20 years, many developing countries have been attempting to develop the domestic milk production sector. However, research on the basic realities and the viability status of enterprises within this sector remain largely unproved in many developing countries. This study focuses on the characteristic of smallholder milk producers in The Gambia. Data were collected from 90 smallholder farm households to characterise milk producers and evaluate the profitability and viability status of this activity. Based on current typology of farms and gross margin analyses at farm level, the study identified two resource-based types of smallholder farms. The current milk production system is surely viable. Constraints to increased productivity include lack of improved technology at farm level and weak institutional support. Despite the low viability status, it is shown that milk production generates reliable incomes, which could be a departure for most farmers to intensify farming systems, particularly in areas where no loan schemes exist for purchasing agricultural inputs.     

Evaluating crop-livestock-based farming systems: A village level study in the dry zone rainfed district of Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka cropping enterprises interact with livestock production on peasant farms. This analysis of the crop-livestock farming system aims at understanding the existing constraints and interactions between crops and livestock in these farms. The main objective of the study is to describe the crop-livestock integrated farming systems in three rainfed villages in the Moneragala district of Sri Lanka, and to evaluate these systems in terms of maximizing farm incomes from the different crop and livestock components of the systems. A field survey was conducted to collect data from 153 farming families for the Maha season of 1982/83. A linear programming model was formulated to test the hypothesis.The results show that in general the activities for lowland rice, highland rice, sugar cane, labour, farm cash cost, and MVP (compost) are higher in the optimal farm plan than in the actual farm situation. The livestock in the optimal plan is mainly confined to milch cattle. However, with the present high level of manutrition among rural livestock industry emphasis should be placed on the expansion of the rural livestock industry in the study villages. The optimal plan also suggests the use of crop residues as a substitute for compost for farm crops. Hence, in the context of escalating prices of chemical fertilizers, research is required to find the suitability of crop residues and household residues as substitutes for compost. Increases in supplementary irrigation may result in the expansion of the farm area and hence the farm income. Other methods of increasing farm income include: replacing hired labour with non-utilized family labour, increased agricultural research, and extension activity regarding the use of modern inputs by farmers on crops.     

Energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and economic performance assessments in French Charolais suckler cattle farms: Model-based analysis and forecasts

The environmental and economic performance of five Charolais beef production systems (three specialized beef producer test cases in grassland areas and two mixed crop-livestock test cases with a more intensive production system) were assessed by coupling an economic optimization model (“Opt’INRA”) with a model assessing non-renewable energy (NRE) consumption and greenhouse gas emissions (“PLANETE”). The test cases studied covered a relatively diverse range of raised and sold animals: calf-to-weanling or calf-to-beef systems (animals sold: from 10-month-old weaners to 36-month-old beef steers). In 2006, NRE consumption ranged from 26,440 to 31,863 MJ/ton of live weight produced over 1 year. Fuels and lubricants were the main factors of NRE consumption, followed by fertilizers and farm equipment. Livestock was the main driver of global warming potential. GHG emissions, at 14.3-18.3 tCO₂eq/t LW, were mainly determined by the proportion of cows in the total herd livestock units, according to the farming system deployed, i.e. calf-to-weanling vs. calf-to-beef. Against a background of rising energy costs, farms running mixed crop-livestock systems enjoy greater flexibility to adjust their farming systems than grassland-based farms, enabling them to minimize the drop in income over the timeframe to 2012 (−3%). In this same setting, specialist beef producers face a 15-25% drop in income. In all the scenarios run, system adjustments designed to minimize the drop in income have only a very limited impact on NRE consumption and GHG emissions.     

A risk efficiency analysis of backgrounding and finishing steers on pasture in Saskatchewan, Canada

This paper combines an agricultural production decision support tool, GrassGro, with economic risk efficiency theory to examine several cattle feeding options that include various grazing systems for three climatic environments in Saskatchewan, Canada. Historical weather data were used to simulate a distribution of forage and cattle production data for each of several grazing systems during a 21-year period, 1978–1998. Price variability was included by varying year 2000 prices using historical price margin changes between the buying and selling weights of cattle. The risk efficiency analysis was completed using the Mean Standard Deviation (MSD) framework, and stochastic dominance principles.

Results of the study suggested that feeding systems, which included grazing, were economically competitive with traditional feedlot feeding systems and grain farming. Finishing cattle on pasture with the addition of a barley supplement was an attractive option, especially when high pasture productivity can be achieved. In all locations, more intense systems that included pasture fertilization and provision of an energy supplement, improved production and risk efficiency. Although the average net returns of all these feeding simulations were negative, the returns of traditional grain crops were even more negative. It is these negative returns in grain operations that lead to the incentive for producers to diversify into cattle production. Despite the negative net returns, the cash flow (range −$15.59 to $407.54 ha⁻¹) was mostly positive in all three locations.