Developmental Biology of Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Three Cucurbitaceous Hosts at Different Temperature Regimes

Fruit flies are key pests of cucurbits in many parts of the world, including Tanzania. Developmental biology of Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett) has been determined across temperature regimes in some cucurbitaceous hosts, in limited geographies. This study was conducted to determine duration and survival rates of immature stages of Z. cucurbitae in three cucurbitaceous hosts, at different temperature regimes. It was hypothesized that temperature and cucurbitaceous hosts influence duration and survival of immature stages of Z. cucurbitae. We conducted experiments in the environmental chamber set at 75 ± 10% RH and a photoperiod of 12:12 (L:D) h, at temperatures of 20, 25, and 30°. Our results showed that duration and survival of immature stages of Z. cucurbitae differed significantly among the temperature regimes but not among the hosts. Egg incubation period as well as larval and pupal stages were significantly longer (P < 0.0001) at low temperature in all three hosts Likewise, survival rate of all immature stages were significantly higher (P < 0.0001) at higher than lower temperatures. The three hosts, cucumber (Cucumis sativus), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. and Nakai), and pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) did not significantly affect duration or survival rates of immature stages of Z. cucurbitae. The low developmental thresholds were estimated at 15.88, 13.44, and 12.62 for egg, larva and pupa, respectively. These results further confirm that Z. cucurbitae is well adapted to warm climate, which dominates many areas of Tanzania.     

蝇蛹金小蜂对黑腹果蝇蛹的寄生习性

黑腹果蝇是杨梅果实的主要害虫之一,蝇蛹金小蜂是黑腹果蝇蛹期寄生蜂.通过在杨梅园使用果蝇蛹进行诱集,获得蝇蛹金小蜂;并探讨蝇蛹金小蜂对果蝇蛹日龄的选择策略、产卵期和后代产量及寄主大小对寄生蜂后代大小和性比的影响.结果表明:蝇蛹金小蜂可利用1～3日龄的果蝇蛹;寄生蜂产卵期为(3.41±2.62)d,单个雌蜂后代雌雄蜂分别为(8.33±5.22)和(3.50±3.42)头,后代性比偏雌,雄性百分比为(0.28±0.20);随寄生蜂产卵期的延长,寄生蜂后代数量显著降低.后代寄生蜂的胫节长度与寄主的蛹长度间存在显著的正相关;在较大的寄主上,寄生蜂倾向于产出更多的雌性后代.     

Effect of temperature on the developmental time,survival of immatures and adult longevity of Aganaspis daci (Hymenoptera: Figitidae), a natural enemy of Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Longevity, developmental time and offspring survival of parasitoid wasps are decisive in their effective performance as biocontrol agents. Optimum temperature range determines parasitoid survival, development and reproduction. Thus, controlling this abiotic factor is a key to the success of pest management programs. Adult longevity, developmental time from egg to adult and survival of immatures of Aganaspis daci were assessed in the laboratory under different constant temperatures; adult longevity without hosts, but with the provision of water and honey, and developmental time and survival of immatures from host pupae, whose larvae had been exposed to parasitoids. Results showed that longevity depended on temperature decreasing in the range 15–20 °C (36 – 25 days), but was lower in the range 25–35 °C (10 – 7 days). Regarding developmental time from egg to adult and survival of immatures, our results showed that 20 and 25 °C are the most suitable temperatures. At 15 and 30 °C mortality of the immature stages was very high (>90%) or developmental time to adult was very slow (>3 months). Immatures did not survive at 35 °C. We found no significant differences in developmental time to adult or survival of immatures between 20 and 25 °C. The sex ratio of parasitoid progeny was female biased at 25 °C; the proportion of females increased at all cases with temperature. The t_o and K for total development were 8.5 °C and 500 DD, respectively. Our findings provide some guidance for future inundative or inoculative field releases of this parasitoid for the management of Ceratitis capitata in Spain.     

Disruption of Darna pallivitta (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) by Conventional and Mobile Pheromone Deployment

Identification of the Darna pallivitta (Moore) pheromone component n-butyl (E)-7,9-decadienoate (E7,9-10:COOn-Bu) has made it possible to investigate communication disruption to control this lepidopteran pest. Conventional communication disruption trials showed marked decreases in the mean number of male moths captured in E7,9-10:COOnBu-treated fields compared with control fields. For traps baited with E7,9-10:COOnBu, percent disruptions were 94.4% and 92.1% for septa (1 g pheromone/ha, 1-wk trial duration) and spirals (6 g pheromone/ha, 8-wk trial duration) respectively. For traps baited with virgin female moths, percent disruption was 73.3% using septa disruptors (1 g pheromone/ha, 1-wk trial duration). Mobile communication disruption using Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) as carriers for E7,9-10:COOn-Bu was evaluated in the following three areas: fly survivorship, attraction of male moths to treated flies, and moth disruption in a small-scale field trial. Topical application of E7,9-10:COOnBu showed no significant decrease in survivorship at 50 and 80 µg/fly. However, decreased survivorship was observed at 100 µg/fly and linear regression showed E7,9-10:COOnBu dose was significantly correlated with B. cucurbitae survivorship. Traps containing honey–pheromone-fed flies attracted and caught D. pallivitta over a 1-wk period, demonstrating the attractiveness of the carrier. Releasing E7,9-10:COOnBu-fed B. cucurbitae (∼2 g pheromone/ha, 1-wk trial duration) resulted in significantly reduced trap catches in treatment fields compared with control fields on the first 2 d of the field trial. Percent disruptions were 84.7% (day 1) and 56.0% (day 2). These results suggest that both conventional communication disruption and mobile communication disruption have potential to control D. pallivitta.     

Implementing a Spinosad-Based Local Bait Station to Control Bactrocera cucurbitae (Diptera: Tephritidae) in High Rainfall Areas of Reunion Island

Three species of fruit flies cause serious damage to cucurbit crops on Reunion Island: Bactrocera cucurbitae (Diptera: Tephritidae) (Coquillett 1899), Dacus ciliatus (Loew 1901), and Dacus demmerezi (Bezzi 1917). To control them, a program of agroecological management of cucurbit flies has been implemented based on the application of Synéis-appât, especially spot sprays on corn borders. However, the high rainfall on Reunion Island limits the long-term efficiency of the bait; in addition, this method cannot be used for large chayote trellises, because corn borders cannot be planted around them. The aim of this study was to design a bait station adapted to prevailing conditions on Reunion Island. An ‘umbrella trap’ tested in Taiwan was used as a reference to compare its efficacy with our local bait station. Experiments were conducted in field cages on B. cucurbitae to test different characteristics of bait stations and to construct one using local materials. Results were validated in the field. The attractiveness of the bait station was related mainly to the color of the external surface, yellow being the most attractive color. The efficacy of the bait station with respect to fly mortality was found to be linked to the accessibility of the bait, and direct application of Synéis-appât on the bait station was found to be the most efficient. In the field, B. cucurbitae were more attracted to the local bait station than to the umbrella trap, while the two other fly species displayed equal attraction to both trap types. Our local bait station is a useful alternative to spot sprays of Synéis-appât and is now included in a local pest management program and is well accepted by farmers.     

Reduction of Optimal Thermal Range in Aging Western Cherry Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The western cherry fruit fly is an economically important pest of sweet cherries in the western United States. The potential of this pest to establish and spread in areas in which it is not currently present has been the focus of recent research. Most published information on the thermal tolerance and optimal thermal range of this pest has focused primarily on the diapausing pupae and predictive phenology models. Microrespirometry and differential calorimetry can be useful tools in describing the thermotolerance and optimal thermal range of insects. This methodology was employed to investigate the effects of western cherry fruit fly adult age on the optimal thermal range. Newly emerged flies exhibited the widest optimal thermal range spanning from 6.6 to 42.2°C for a total range of 35.8°C during heating scans of 0.4°C/min from 2 to 50°C. This range diminished as the flies aged, with the shortest span observed with 28-d-old flies ranging from 10.5 to 37.8°C, a span of 27.2°C. Measurements of heat rate and oxygen consumption at isothermal, or static, temperatures indicated that all flies could survive exposure to 40°C for at least 20 min, and that metabolism was greatly reduced, with a concomitant reduction in oxygen consumption rate at 40 to 42°C. All flies exhibited a heat rate and oxygen consumption rate of zero when exposed to 45 and 50°C. The loss of thermotolerance in adult flies can influence its ability to establish and spread in climates where daily temperatures exceed the optimal thermal range of this species.     

Courtship,Mating Behavior,and Ovary Histology of the Nymph Parasitoid Psyllaephagus bliteus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)

The potential of the parasitoid Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek for the biological control of the eucalyptus pest Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera: Aphalaridae) nymphs is high. This research sought to analyze the courtship, male competition, and mating behavior of P. bliteus at the proportions of 1:1 and 2:1 males to female in a Petri dish (5 cm diameter), and to describe the ovary histology of virgin and mated females of this parasitoid. At 1:1, males touch the antennae and thorax–abdomen of females during courtship, but females avoid mate attempts before they are 48 h old. At 2:1, the competition between male parasitoids inhibits mating. The histology of ovaries of virgin and mated P. bliteus females is similar, with two well-defined germarium and vitellarium regions, with oocytes at different developmental stages, including mature ones rich in yolk and with eggshell. A clearer understanding of the reproductive behavior and histology of P. bliteus aids in the use of this parasitoid for the biological control of G. brimblecombei.     

Flight Capacity of Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) Adult Females Based on Flight Mill Studies and Flight Muscle Ultrastructure

The oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae), is considered a major economic threat in many regions worldwide. To better comprehend flight capacity of B. dorsalis and its physiological basis, a computer-monitored flight mill was used to study flight capacity of B. dorsalis adult females of various ages, and the changes of its flight muscle ultrastructures were studied by transmission electron microscopy. The flight capacity (both speed and distance) changed significantly with age of B. dorsalis female adults, peaking at about 15 d; the myofibril diameter of the flight muscle of test insects at 15-d old was the longest, up to 1.56 µm, the sarcomere length at 15-d old was the shortest, averaging at 1.37 µm, volume content of mitochondria of flight muscle at 15-d old reached the peak, it was 32.64%. This study provides the important scientific data for better revealing long-distance movement mechanism of B. dorsalis.     

Biology and Trapping of Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) Developing in Pineapple Residues (Ananas comosus) in Costa Rica

Pineapple production in Costa Rica increased nearly 300-fold during the last 30 yr, and >40,000 hectares of land are currently dedicated to this crop. At the end of the pineapple cropping cycle, plants are chopped and residues incorporated into the soil in preparation for replanting. Associated with increased pineapple production has been a large increase in stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), populations. Stable flies are attracted to, and oviposit in, the decomposing, chopped pineapple residues. In conjunction with chemical control of developing larvae, adult trapping is an important control strategy. In this study, four blue-black fabric traps, Nzi, Vavoua, Model H, and Ngu, were compared with a white sticky trap currently used for stable fly control in Costa Rica. Overall, the white sticky trap caught the highest number of stable flies, followed by the Nzi, Vavoua, Model H, and Ngu. Collections on the white sticky trap increased 16 d after residues were chopped; coinciding with the expected emergence of flies developing in the pineapple residues. During this same time period, collections in the blue-black fabric traps decreased. Sex ratio decreased from >7:1 (females:males) 3–7 d after chopping to 1:1 at 24–28 d. White sticky, Nzi and Vavoua traps collected similar numbers of colonizing flies 3–7 d after residues were chopped. However, white sticky traps collected more flies once emergence from the pineapple residues began. Although white sticky traps collected more flies than fabric traps, they remain labor intensive and environmentally unsound because of their disposable and nonbiodegradable nature.     

Host suitability of three avocado cultivars (Persea americana Miller: Lauraceae) to oriental fruit fly (Bactrocera (invadens) dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae))

The oriental (invasive) fruit fly Bactrocera (invadens) dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae) has invaded Africa and is currently established in over 30 countries and has caused in massive fruit losses. Avocado (Persea americana Miller) is among the fruit with which the pest is associated. The aim of the study was to determine the host status of a ‘black-skinned’ cultivar “Hass” and two ‘green-skinned’ cultivars “Pinkerton” and “Fuerte” to B. (invadens) dorsalis. In the laboratory study conducted in Kenya in 2012 and 2013, punctured and unpunctured recently-harvested fruit were exposed to sexually-mature fruit fly in ‘no-choice’ experiments. B. (invadens) dorsalis readily developed in the punctured fruit but not in the uncompromised fruit (fruit not damaged by insects or handling). This result was confirmed in Tanzania in 2013 where flies were introduced to unpunctured fruit. In the field studies the fruit of each cultivar were caged in situ with flies for 72 h. On dissection only fruit damaged by false codling moth (Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick)) were found to harbor B. (invadens) dorsalis. In the light of these results the risk imposed for “Hass”, “Pinkerton” and “Fuerte” by B. (invadens) dorsalis is negligible under standard export conditions. The findings of this study and the implications to regional and international trade are discussed.     

Behavioral Effects and Retention of Protein Immunomarkers on Plum Curculio Conotrachelus nenuphar (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Protein immunomarking can be used to track the dispersal of insects in the field or identify plant–insect interactions. By marking insects with known proteins and recapturing them, their movement or host use can be quantified with Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Before using this technique, retention and behavioral effects of these markers should be evaluated to ensure that the insect’s natural behaviors are conserved. Here, we tested the effects of protein markers on the plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) using two different application methods. This weevil is native to North American and a pest of tree fruit and blueberry in the United States and causes damage resulting in near complete crop loss if left untreated. We tested the effects of marking adult C. nenuphar with two inexpensive food-based immunoprotein markers, bovine casein (cow’s milk) and chicken albumin (egg whites) on climbing distance (total cm), lateral movement (total cm), and lateral movement speed (cm/s), as well as retention time of protein immunomarkers. Neither protein immunomarker affected C. nenuphar movement or climbing, although females climbed significantly greater distances than males. ELISA assays detected 37.5–56.2% of milk protein and 56.2–59.3% of egg on the insect 7 d after application depending on application method. Our findings indicate that food-based protein immunomarkers can be used in future studies to test C. nenuphar movement within host plants without impacting behavior. The use of protein immunomarking will allow studies that will lead to behaviorally based management tactics.     

Adult Behavior of Tirumala limniace (Lepidoptera: Danaidae)

Tirumala limniace Cramer as an ornamental butterfly is utilized in butterfly garden, in this article we study their adult activities include flight, foraging, courtship, mating, and oviposition. We found that males spent 22.1% of its time flying, 14.1% foraging, 63.8% in courtship and mating. And females spent 30.8% of its time flying, 10.1% foraging, 57.1% in courtship and mating, and 2% ovipositing. Adults emerged from pupae when temperatures were above 23.5°C and eclosion took only ∼1 min, typically followed by a small amount of flight on the first day. Flight activity peaked from the ninth to the thirteenth day after eclosion, and there were two daily peak flight times: 10:00–13:00 and 15:00–18:00. The peak of flower-visiting activity was from the eighth to the thirteenth day after eclosion, and there were two daily peak foraging times: 11:00–12:00 and 16:00–17:00. Flight and foraging frequency and time were positively correlated and both were closely related to temperature, with very little flight or foraging below 18°C and an increase at temperatures above 22°C. Courtship and mating took place on the sixth day after eclosion, while oviposition occurred the following day. Oviposition occurred over 8 d, and the shortest time of a single oviposition was 2 s. The average life expectancy of males was 16.5 d, while that of females was 15 d.     

Differences in Antennal Sensillae of Male and Female Peach Fruit Flies in Relation to Hosts

Antennal sensillae of male and female peach fruit flies, Bactrocera zonata (Saunders) (Diptera: Tephritidae), obtained from three different host fruit species (guava, Psidium guajava L. (Myrtales: Myrtaceae); peach, Prunus persica (L.) Stokes (Rosales: Rosaceae); and orange, Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (Sapindales: Rutaceae)), were studied with scanning electron microscopy. This study was carried out to describe the different types of sensillae present on the three antennal segments (scape, pedicel, and flagellum or funiculus) of both sexes of B. zonata on different host fruit. The antennal segments of females tended to be larger than those of males feeding on peach and guava fruit. On orange, both sexes were similar (no significant differences were found). The first two antennal segments, scape and pedicel, are reinforced by some bristles and have different types of sensillae, including trichoid I, II, S; basiconic II; and sensilla chaetica in different numbers on different host fruit species. Numerous microtrichia, as well as trichoid (I, II), basiconic (I), clavate, and coeloconic (I, II) sensillae were observed on the funiculus with a great variation in number and length. As a result of feeding on different hosts, differences were found between sexes and some plasticity in size, number, distribution, and position of some sensillae, including trichoid, basiconic, chaetica, and clavate on the antennae of the female B. zonata. These sensillae were significantly larger in females. Also, some morphological and morphemetric differences have been found according to their feeding on different host fruit.     

Sublethal effect of avermectin and acetamiprid on the mortality of different life stages of Brontispa longissima (Gestro) (Coleoptera: Hispidae) and its larvae parasitoid Asecodes hispinarum Bouček (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)

The beneficial parasitoid Asecodes hispinarum Bouček plays an important role in integrated pest management (IPM) of the coconut leaf beetle, Brontispa longissima (Gestro), in China. A. hispinarum females parasitize 3rd to 4th instars B. longissima larvae. Hatched parasitoid larvae develop within the host, and parasitoid adults emerge through holes that they chew through the cuticle of the host. Although chemicals serve as the main short term control agents, the compatibility of biological and chemical control has never been investigated for this system. This study examined the responses of immature and adult B. longissima and its larval parasitoid A. hispinarum to avermectin and acetamiprid. Avermectin caused complete mortality of 2nd to 4th instar larvae, and of adults of B. longissima at 10, 15 and 2 d after treatment, respectively. However, 26.7% of the 2nd instar larvae, 55.3% of the 4th instar larvae, and 74%, of adult B. longissima were still alive 40 d after acetamiprid application. Following avermectin exposure, 17.5%, 9.2% and 23% of mummified B. longissima larvae contained viable adult parasitoids for the parasitoid egg, larva and pupa treatments, respectively, and the numbers of dead parasitoids per mummy were 3.3, 7.2 and 13.3 for the egg, larva and adult treatments, respectively. However, for acetamiprid treatment, 70–75.9% of mummified B. longissima larvae contained viable adult parasitoids in all three stage treatments, and the number of dead parasitoids per mummy was 2.8, 2 and 3.4 in egg, larva and adult treatments, respectively. This study showed that a sublethal dose of avermectin is more toxic than acetamiprid to B. longissima and A. hispinarum. Therefore, direct contact of the parasitoid with avermectin should be avoided when this insecticide is used to control B. longissima.     

Adaptation of Habrobracon hebetor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) to Rearing on Ephestia kuehniella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Food characteristics strongly regulate digestive enzymatic activity of insects through direct influences on their midgut mechanisms. Insect performance is better on diets that contain nutrients in proportions that fit its digestive enzymes. Little is known about the influences of rearing history on parasitism success of Habrobracon hebetor Say. This research focused on the effect of nutrient regulation on survival, development, and parasitism of H. hebetor. Life history and digestive enzyme activity of fourth-stage larvae of H. hebetor were studied when reared on Ephestia kuehniella Zeller. This parasitoid was then introduced to Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), and above-mentioned parameters were also studied in the first and fourth generations after transfer. In term of parasitism success, H. hebetor preferred E. kuehniella over He. armigera. When the first and fourth generations of He. armigera-reared H. hebetor were compared, the rearing history affected the life history and enzymatic activity of the parasitoid. A better performance of H. hebetor was achieved after it was reared on He. armigera for the four generations. Because, digestive α-amylase and general protease of the parasitoid were matched with the new host, it used reserve energy for a better performance. Thus, a better performance of H. hebetor could be obtained when the parasitoid was reared on its original host for at least four generations.     

Status of Bactrocera invadens (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Mango-Producing Areas of Arba Minch,Southwestern Ethiopia

Bactrocera invadens, the Asian fruit fly, was first reported in Kenya in 2003, and it spread fast to most tropical countries in Africa. To our knowledge, there is no detailed data on the fruit damage and status of fruit flies in Arba Minch and elsewhere in Ethiopia. Hence, information on the species composition and pest status of the fruit fly species is urgent to plan management strategies in the area. Fruit flies were captured using male parapheromone-baited traps. Matured mango (Mangifera indica) fruits were collected from randomly selected mango trees and incubated individually in cages (15 by 15 by 15 cm) with sandy soil. B. invadens was the predominant (96%; 952 of 992) captured species and the only fruit fly species emerging from mango fruits incubated in the laboratory. The mean number of adult B. invadens emerging per mango fruit was 35.25, indicating that the species is the most devastating mango fruit fly in the area. The loss due to this species would be serious if no management strategies are implemented.     

Ecology of Meimuna mongolica (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) Nymphs: Instars,Morphological Variation,Vertical Distribution and Population Density,Host-Plant Selection,and Emergence Phenology

The cicada Meimuna mongolica (Distant) (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) is one of the most important pests of economic forest in Guanzhong Plain of Shaanxi Province, China. Information about ecological characteristics and some sustainable control measures of this species is urgently required for its control. In this study, nymphal instars, morphological variation, vertical distribution, and population density in soil, and emergence phenology of nymphs of M. mongolica on three main host plants (Pinus tabuliformis Carr., Populus tomentosa Carr., and Pyrus xerophila Yü) were studied, based on combined morphological and molecular identification, investigation of the first-instar nymphs hatched from eggs and others excavated from soil, and investigation of exuviae in the adult emergence period. Five nymphal instars of M. mongolica were redetermined according to the distribution plots of the head capsule widths of the nymphs. Nymphs of third and fourth instars showed morphological variation, which is closely related to host-plant association. The mean densities of nymphs in soil under the three host plants were significantly different, indicating a distinct host preference. The nymphs could extend their distribution from the 0–10 cm soil layer to the 51–60 cm soil layer underground but not beyond 60 cm soil layer under all the three host plants. The 21–30 cm soil layer under all the three host plants has the highest nymphal population density. The sex ratio of the entire population was nearly 50:50, but males dominated in the early half of the duration of the emergence. These ecological characteristics of M. mongolica could provide important information for sustainable control measures.     

Oviposition Preference and Offspring Performance of Mechoris ursulus (Coleoptera: Attelabidae) in Cyclobalanopsis glaucoides (Fagales: Fagaceae) and Quercus franchetii (Fagales: Fagaceae) in Central Yunnan,China

Mechoris ursulus (Roelofs) (Coleoptera: Attelabidae) is a pest weevil of Fagaceae oak trees in eastern Asia. The female has a distinct branch-cutting behavior in conjunction with oviposition in the acorns of its host plant. This study analyzed the factors influencing oviposition preference by carrying out continuous field surveys over the course of 2009–2010 and through laboratory rearing. The field survey showed that for both of the hosts, Cyclobalanopsis glaucoides Schottky (Fagales: Fagaceae) and Quercus franchetii Skan, M. ursulus preferred branches with fewer acorns and larger acorns on the same branch for oviposition. Laboratory rearing experiments showed offspring performance (i.e., survival rate and fresh weight of larvae) was significantly and positively correlated with acorn size. Preference for larger acorns could maximize the fitness of offspring by providing sufficient food source and space.     

Spatial and temporal abundance of the solanum fruit fly, Bactrocera latifrons (Hendel), in Morogoro,Tanzania

Bactrocera latifrons is a newly invasive pest species in eastern Africa. Surveys to determine the spatial and temporal abundance of this fruit fly in the Morogoro Region, Eastern Central Tanzania, were conducted from April 2007 to March 2008. The surveys involved trapping of adult flies and collection of host fruits to determine the emergence of adults. The results indicated that the population of B. latifrons was generally low but that adult flies were present throughout the survey period. The population of B. latifrons based on infestation rates and incidence in host fruits, seems to be relatively high during the wet seasons, probably because of availability of many hosts. However, the population of the pest as determined by trapping, indicated a low population but without a specific pattern. The pest shows minimal response to the used attractants. The surveys further indicate that B. latifrons is more abundant in low to medium altitude areas compared to high altitude areas. The results indicate that, because of its low population, B. latifrons might be a minor pest. Results further suggest the possibility of establishing B. latifrons free areas where export valued solanaceous crops can be grown, but further research over longer periods would be needed to establish this.