Windthrow after Shelterwood cutting in Picea abies Peatland forests

The aim of the study was to address the question of whether shelterwood cutting should be discouraged as a forest regeneration method in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) forests on highly productive peatlands due to a higher risk of windthrow in such forests. The total extent of windthrow was observed during six years after shelterwood cutting in nine spruce forests on fertile peatlands in north, central and south Sweden. Shelterwoods at densities of 140 and 200 stems ha^‐1 were studied. At the end of the six year study period, 43% of all trees in the sparser shelterwoods and 38% of the trees in the denser shelterwoods had blown down. With respect to results from recent studies of the development of naturally regenerated and planted seedlings under the shelter trees, the extent of windthrow was regarded acceptable. Analysis of wind data from national weather stations close to the experiments showed that the acceptable extent of windthrow could not be explained by low frequencies of high winds during the shelterwood period. On the contrary, according to the wind observations made at the weather stations selected in central and south Sweden, the annual number of days with high winds (>21 ms^‐1) during the six years after the shelter‐wood cutting was larger than the average high wind frequency for the last 40 years. Observations of maximum wind speeds show that the mean annual gale force during the shelterwood period was higher than the long term average. Thus, the results from this study do not justify avoidance of shelterwood cutting in spruce peatland forests because of the risk of windthrow. Each of the shelterwoods in the experiment was located close to a large clearcut, and the shelterwood cuttings were carried out as heavy thinnings. For further reduction of windthrow, denser shelterwoods and no clearcutting in adjacent stands are suggested when using shelterwood systems in practical forestry.     

An Assessment of the Static and Dynamic Factors Involved in Windthrow

Static parameters of the windthrow process were measured bywinching over ten Sitka spruce trees growing on a windthrow-susceptiblesite in the Scottish Borders. The critical wind speeds to causeuprooting were calculated using measured wind profiles and assumingstatic loading of the crown. Values obtained greatly exceededthe wind speeds recorded during a gale which caused damage.The ranking of stabilities of the ten samples was: Suppressedtrees >gt; sturdy dominants >gt; slender dominants. Recalculationusing measured damping ratios, and assuming that the gust frequencycoincided with the tree frequency to cause resonance, reducedthe values to within the range of the maximum recorded gust. Displacements of three sample trees, estimated from accelerometerdata, were compared with simultaneous wind speed recordings.Perfect resonance was not observed but large oscillations builtup over a period of 2–3 cycles. Estimates of the dynamicload factors varied from 0.5–5. The larger gusts tendedto be associated with the smaller factors. Increasing the dynamicload factor from 1 (equivalent to a static load) to 2 reducedthe critical wind speed by approximately 40 per cent. The influence of sway direction and canopy contact on the dampingratio of the three accelerometer trees was investigated. Theresults suggest that canopy contact comprises a greater portionof the damping ratio of small trees than that of dominants.     

Dynamics of ecosystem services in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> stands under different managements and site quality classes

Timber and biodiversity are considered two antagonistic ecosystem services (ES), largely influenced by silviculture and site ecological conditions. In order to address the trade-offs between these two ES over time, we performed a retrospective study at compartment level in the Pinus sylvestris forests of the Spanish Central Mountain System. Archival data from Management Plans for eight forests with contrasting silvicultural systems (uniform shelterwood system, group shelterwood system, irregular shelterwood system,) and three different site quality classes were analysed. Timber production was assessed through stand volume, harvested timber volume and a stand volume index. Biodiversity was examined through structural diversity (Gini index, Shannon tree size diversity index, Simpson’s reciprocal index and evenness index, all applied to diameter classes) and the abundance of large living trees. For all silvicultural systems investigated, stand volume and harvested timber volume have grown since the beginning of the management plans (beginning of the twentieth century in some forests). The largest yields of timber corresponded to the best quality sites with more intensive silvicultural treatments (uniform and group shelterwood systems). The uniform shelterwood system showed lower figures for structural diversity, though not always significant. The best site qualities maintained notable structural diversity values, even under the most intensive management system. The application of the different management systems over decades has revealed a synergy between timber production and structural diversity, particularly in those systems maintaining more than one age class, although results are conditioned by forest harvesting history. The interaction between historical silvicultural treatment and site quality has been identified as an important source of information to understand forest dynamics and functioning of ES provision.     

恒被林及其育林体系

恒被林很早就被提出来了,但其育林体系直到现在才得到推行,这个育林体系不包括皆伐,要求林冠永远地覆盖林地,而不使土壤裸露。这个育林体系既能维护森林环境,不影响森林景观和森林结构的变化,又能培育与收获木材,很符合现代的森林经营观念。英国的恒被育林体系包括:群状与单株择伐,渐伐,带状与群状渐伐,有计划的群状采伐,伐块范围不超过0.25hm2,采用人工栽植或天然更新或两者结合以形成复层异龄混交林。对于同龄纯林可采用上述育林体系进行改造。     

Recruitment of tree species in mixed selection and irregular shelterwood forest stands

Context

Recruitment is an important process in forest stand dynamics, especially in uneven-aged stands. Continuous recruitment is a prerequisite for diverse, uneven-aged silvicultural systems, but patterns may vary significantly.

Aims

The main goals of the study were to examine the recruitment of the main tree species in selection and irregular shelterwood stands in silver fir?CEuropean beech?CNorway spruce forests and to determine the main predictors of the recruitment occurrence.

Methods

Data from 5,486 permanent inventory plots were used to study recruitment of saplings into the tree layer (diameter at breast height ??10?cm).

Results

Recruitment rate differed significantly between selection (7.6?trees?ha^?1?year^?1) and irregular shelterwood (26.1?trees?ha^?1?year^?1) stands. Shade-tolerant fir and beech recruited with higher probability in selection stands, while light-dependent sycamore recruited with higher probability in irregular stands. In addition, forest types, soil pH, stand basal area, mean diameter, and the basal area of the same tree species with respect to recruitment were found to be important predictors of recruitment occurrence.

Conclusions

The application of different uneven-aged silvicultural systems and their forms makes it possible to considerably influence the future tree species composition of uneven-aged forests.     

伞伐更新法对赫卡尼亚(Hyrcanian)森林系统中森林再生和林分结构的影响

研究伞伐更新法对赫卡尼亚森林系统中森林再生和林分结构的影响。在伊朗北部优势种为山毛榉（Fagus orientalisLipsky）的硬木林,采取伞伐更新法和非伞伐更新法方法设计实验区。结果表明,在山毛榉（F orientalis Lipsky）林中采用伞伐更新法处理,明显影响林下草本植物种的频度和密度。伞伐更新法处理后,林堇菜（Viola silvestris Lam.）、车叶草（Asperula odorata L.）、苔草（Carex spp.）和悬钩子（Rubushyrcanus Juz）的种频度明显增加。在对照区,树种的胸高直径（57.50&#177;2.15cm）大于被处理区（50.67&#177;1.88cm）的树种的胸高直径（50.67&#177;1.88 cm）,但对照区和处理区的树种的高度值相似。在1995-2005年间,波斯铁木（Parrotia persica）苗木数量增加到13.2%,而山毛榉（F orientalis）和欧洲鹅耳枥（Carpinus betulus）的苗木数量却明显减少。总之,应该利用其它育林方法,如,带状择伐作业,而不是伞伐更新法培育赫卡尼亚森林中山毛榉林。     

The bottomland hardwood forest of the southern United States

Bottomland hardwood forests are valued for timber production, water storage, enhanced water quality, nutrient cycling, erosion control and wildlife habitat. However, the majority of southern bottomland stands, 90% of which are in private ownership, are occupied by a degraded mixture of tree species, caused largely by repeated, incomplete harvests. They can be naturally regenerated to a stand of favorable species composition by removing the residual stand of merchantable and non-merchantable trees. For timber production, these systems respond best to even-aged management such as clearcutting, shelterwood cutting and patch clearcutting. Plant succession under such systems allows shade intolerant species to occupy the site, followed by species of increasing shade tolerance. Uneven-aged systems, such as individual-tree selection and group selection, are also viable regeneration methods, but they require great attention to detail and frequent stand entry. In areas of high sensitivity to timber harvesting, a two-aged system such as a leave-tree is recommended. Stand disturbance, either planned or unplanned, is needed to keep southern hardwood forest stands viable.     

基于流体仿真的椭球型树冠抗风性能研究

近年来,随着全球气候频繁变化,台风等极端灾害性天气发生频率加剧,森林正面临着潜在的巨大损害。台风产生的风压、风速、湍流强度施加于林木上,使得林木风倒频繁发生。因此,研究树木的抗风性能有着重要意义。使用计算机仿真数值模拟方法对流场在林分中的运动进行求取,主要方法如下:首先通过GAMBIT对三维树冠进行树木建模并进行网格划分,其次使用标准k-ε方程组对三维树冠的流场分布进行模拟。最后通过模拟计算得到不同叶面积指数对应的树冠周围压力场、风速、湍动能分布。结果表明:对于单株树,当树冠孔隙度从0.25变化到0.75,即叶面积指数从2.77变化到0.58时,冠内风速在树冠内的波动幅度从8.0 m/s下降到4.0m/s,树冠内压力的波动幅度从229.0 Pa下降到到143.5 Pa,湍流强度的波动幅度从6.03%降到3.40%;对于林冠来说,当孔隙度从0.25变化到0.75,即叶面积指数从2.77变化到0.58时,在林冠前后的风速差从17.67 m/s变化为15.89 m/s,压力差从180.38 Pa变化到117.38 Pa,湍流强度的变化幅度从4.0%变化到2.4%。由于树冠前后压差过大和树冠内风速差过大会导致树的结构遭到破坏,因此,越稀疏的林冠,抗风性能越好。     

Impacts of temperate lianas on tree growth in young deciduous forests

Lianas are often overlooked in temperate ecological studies even though they are important components of forest communities. While lianas have been shown to damage tropical canopy trees and reduce the growth of juvenile trees, the impact of lianas on canopy tree growth in temperate systems is largely unknown. Growth of trees ≥8 cm dbh was examined over a 9-year period within 50-year old post-agricultural secondary forests in the Piedmont region of New Jersey, USA. Five lianas, Celastrus orbiculatus, Lonicera japonica, Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Toxicodendron radicans, and Vitis species, occurred throughout the forest. Total liana basal area, number of stems, and percent cover within host trees were evaluated to assess liana burdens on 606 previously censused trees. These data were related to tree growth to assess liana impacts. Forest trees were separated based on their dominance in the canopy to determine whether lianas had the potential to influence forest composition. In general, lianas in the forests were fairly abundant, with 68% of the trees having at least one liana present. On average, each tree supported 9.7 cm² of liana basal area and 23% of the canopy was covered by lianas. Most of the variation in tree growth was related to the dominance of trees within the canopy, with canopy dominant and co-dominant trees growing 2.5× more than suppressed trees. Liana basal area and number of lianas stems were not related to tree growth, but liana canopy cover decreased tree growth. However, not all trees were equally affected as canopy cover of lianas only reduced growth in dominant and co-dominant trees. Lianas were most influential on host tree growth in unsuppressed trees when occupying a majority of the canopy, only a minority of forest trees. This suppression was not related to differential liana colonization of canopy trees as all canopy classes supported equivalent liana burdens. Though lianas impacted only a minority of the trees in this system, some liana species, C. orbiculatus and Vitis spp., are still increasing and may pose future risks to forest growth and development.     

Crown plasticity and neighborhood interactions of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in an old-growth forest

Competition for canopy space is a process of major importance in forest dynamics. Although virgin and old-growth European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests in Europe have been studied for many years, there are to date no studies of individual-tree crown plasticity and the way this is influenced by local neighborhood interactions in these forests. In this study, we analyzed crown plasticity and local neighborhood interactions of individual trees in the upper canopy of the old-growth beech forests of Serrahn, northeast Germany. In a 2.8-ha sample plot, we measured crown radii of all upper canopy trees and analyzed the direction and extent of crown asymmetry. Size, relative position, and distance of neighboring trees were used to construct vectors of neighborhood asymmetry within different distances from target trees. The crowns of beech trees showed strong morphological plasticity. Mean absolute and relative displacement of crown centers from the stem base were 1.95 m and 0.37, respectively. Circular–circular rank correlation coefficients between the direction of crown displacement and the direction of neighborhood pressure showed that trees strongly positioned their crowns away from local neighbors. Highest correlation coefficients were obtained when basal area and relative position of neighboring trees within a radial distance of 12 m were considered. Clark and Evans index and Ripley’s K-function showed that crowns were more regularly distributed than stems. Projected canopy cover was about 10% higher than canopy cover with simulated circular crowns. We conclude that the crowns of older beech trees have a high ability to plastically respond to changes in the local canopy conditions, enabling very effective exploitation of canopy space.     

Wind loading of trees: influence of tree size and competition

Wind damage to forests is an important ecological disturbance factor. At the same time, it can have serious economic consequences due to a reduction in timber production. Current models for predicting the risk of wind damage are useful, but generally only focus on the “mean” tree within uniform stands. This paper presents measurements made of wind loading on trees of different sizes within four forest stands of different structure and management history, but all well-acclimated to current wind conditions. Each tree demonstrated a linear relationship between the maximum hourly turning moment and the square of the average hourly wind speed at the canopy top; we defined this ratio (the gradient of the line M _max vs. u ²) as the turning moment coefficient (T _C). T _C was correlated with tree size, in a relationship that differed little between the four forest sites despite the differences between the stands. The relationship between T _C and individual tree competition within each stand was investigated, using both distance-independent and distance-dependent competition indices. All sites showed decreasing T _C with increasing competition. However, the relationships differed between sites and would also be expected to change through time for a single site. The distance-dependent indices offered no improvement over the simpler, non-spatial indices that required only a diameter distribution. We suggest how, subject to further work, the results presented could be applied to calculate the risk of wind damage to trees of different sizes within a forest stand, and how the risk of wind damage to individual trees might change in response to thinning.     

Retention of canopy lichens after partial-cut harvesting in wet-belt interior cedar–hemlock forests,British Columbia,Canada

Old-growth cedar–hemlock forests of the interior wet-belt of British Columbia are rich in abundance and diversity of canopy lichens, but are subject to forest harvesting. If these distinctive canopy lichen communities are to be conserved, it is important to learn how they are affected by forestry practices, including partial-cutting techniques designed to retain old-growth attributes. The retention of canopy lichens after 30 and 70% partial-cut harvesting (immediate post-harvest and 2-year post-harvest measurements) was examined using direct canopy access methods (tree climbing) in two old-growth interior cedar–hemlock forest stands of the upper Fraser River valley. Mean lichen loading was generally lower in all treatment areas, including control sites, 2 years after harvesting. However, three of four lichen-sampling groups (cyanolichen, foliose, and Bryoria group lichens) did not show significant treatment effects (total lichen loading) by harvesting type (30, 70 or 100% retention), when data sets were standardized against initial post-harvest lichen loading. Only in Alectoria group lichens were treatment effects observed. Although cyanolichen loading was not significantly different in retained trees in most harvest blocks, many thalli, especially those near south-facing edges, were discolored, suggesting that future cyanolichen loading may be lower within partial-cut harvest blocks. Litterfall in general was greater during 2001/2002 than 2002/2003, even in the control units, suggesting weather-related differences between years. For Alectoria, there appeared to be a treatment-related pulse of litterfall that was more pronounced in the 70% removal than the 30% removal treatment unit. Deposition patterns of litterfall components in relation to edges of openings indicated a heightened level of Alectoria litterfall along edges. Treatment-related differences were absent or weak in other groups, and cyanolichen litterfall did not differ between years in any study area/treatment unit combination. These findings suggest that lichen retention in the residual stand of both partial-cut treatments was adequate to meet management goals, but also point to the necessity of future monitoring, as other edge effects (e.g. microclimate changes) influence future lichen growth and mortality.     

The relationship between shelterwood cuts and crown thinnings and the abundance and distribution of birds in a southern New England forest

Forest regeneration methods such as shelterwood treatments have been shown to substantially increase the diversity of bird species, specifically of species that prefer early seral forests, now rare in the eastern United States. Stand improvement techniques such as thinnings have also been found to increase avian diversity under some conditions. A sustainably managed forest, however, must simultaneously apply regenerative harvesting with stand improvements, and the effect of such treatment combinations on bird community composition is not clear. We compared bird distribution and abundance on shelterwood cuts, crown thinnings, and unmanaged stands at the Yale Myers Forest, a large privately owned and actively managed forest in southern New England. Bird abundance and species diversity was highest in shelterwood cuts and lowest in unmanaged forest, with thinnings being intermediary. Different suites of species inhabited the three treatments, with 18 of 49 common species differing significantly in their abundances between treatments. Characteristics of the vegetation that were directly influenced by silvicultural intervention, including canopy openness, seedling regeneration and vertical structural diversity, appeared to be the dominant drivers of bird abundance. The abundances of some species or groups of species were correlated with the number of trees retained in the implementation of the forestry practices. In conjunction with the conservation of a variety of mature forest habitats, regenerative cuts and stand improvement techniques can be used together to sustain a diverse assemblage of bird species.     

Role of topography, canopy structure, and floristics in nest-site selection and nesting success of canopy songbirds

Although oaks (Quercus spp.) have historically dominated many forests in eastern North America, forest composition is changing due to anthropogenic impacts on disturbance regimes. Silvicultural practices, such as partial harvesting, are one component of management to promote oak regeneration. From 2007 to 2009 our research examined nest-site selection and nesting success for a guild of five canopy songbirds in upland mixed-oak forests in southeastern Ohio, USA. We monitored >700 nests across three state forests in both open canopy shelterwood stands harvested to approximately 50% stocking, and closed-canopy mature second-growth. Habitat attributes, including topography, canopy structure, and floristics, were measured at nest sites and random plots ?100 m from nests representing microhabitat available within the territory. Canopy songbirds selected specific topographic microclimates: Eastern Wood-pewees (Contopus virens) nested on xeric ridgetops, Blue-gray Gnatcachers (Polioptila caerulea) favored valleys, and Cerulean Warblers (Dendroica cerulea) preferred productive northeast-facing slopes. Nest sites differed among species in terms of concealment, nest support, topographic position on the slope, and basal area of trees >38 cm dbh. Four of the five focal species selected Quercus alba as the nest substrate more than twice as much as available, and three species avoided Quercus rubra. Daily survival rates of nests were negatively associated with basal area of red oak species (both Quercus velutina and Q. rubra) for several species individually and across the canopy-nesting guild. Additional factors related to success included time of season for Eastern Wood-pewees, nest age for Cerulean Warblers, and concealment and size of the support branch for Scarlet Tanagers (Piranga olivacea). In the long-term management for oak regeneration could benefit canopy songbirds, but our results indicate that white oaks, especially Q. alba, may be preferable to red oak species.     

树木、林内、林冠上与森林区风速廓线研究

One of the most important and frequently studied variable in forests and the most basic element in governing transport processes of airflow is wind speed. The study of wind profile, defined as the change of wind velocity with height, and wind velocity are important because of tree physiological and developmental responses. Generally, wind profiles above the ground or at a canopy surface follow classical logarithm law, but wind profiles in a single tree and in a forest stand are not logarithmic. This paper summarizes the results of wind profile studies within a single tree, in a forest stand, above the forest canopy and in a forest area from recent research in a coastal pine forest. The results demonstrate that: 1) wind profiles with in a single conifer tree crown showed an exponential function with height, 2) wind profiles in forest stands were able to be expressed by attenuation coefficient of wind, 3) wind profiles over a forest canopy could be determined using profile parameters (friction velocity, roughness length and displacement), and 4) for a forest area, the extreme wind speed could be predicted reasonably using the methods developed for the design of buildings. More research will be required to demonstrate: 1) relationships between wind profiles and tree or stand characteristics, 2) the simple methods for predicting wind profile parameters, and 3) the applications of wind profile in studies of tree physiology, forest ecology and management, and the detail ecological effects of wind on tree growth.     

Forest structure in selected South African forests: edaphoclimatic environment, phase and disturbance

Analysing data from 903 permanent sample plots situated in medium-moist and moist forests in the southern Cape, South Africa, we explored factors controlling forest structure. Pronounced subcanopy stem density persistence (well-stocked subcanopy forest matrix) and stem density packing (comparatively high stem densities of relatively large-sized trees) were found in the moist, less seasonal (quasi-tropical) Tsitsikamma forests. These attributes of structure were linked to the prevailing dystrophic, less seasonal conditions and the associated metabolic vertical growth orientation. The cool, moist and seasonal (quasi-temperate) Knysna forests had lower densities of relatively large-sized trees at the canopy level (stem density intolerance). This was attributed to the lateral growth mode and extended persistence of the trees involved. The warm, seasonal (quasi-subtropical) Outeniqua forests, on relatively nutrient-rich soils, had high stem densities at the canopy level relative to the subcanopy stratum; due to a combination of low subcanopy tree persistence, fast ingrowth of trees into the canopy stratum, which were then lost to mortality before they reached large sizes (high canopy tree turnover). Persistence of the multi-species subcanopy forest matrix supported asynchronous establishment and death of individual trees. Typical for tropical-type forests, the development of trees towards maturity (phase) was associated with a spatially fine-grained disturbance regime. A metabolic performance trade-off model was developed and provided an ecophysiological framework for the interpretation of forest structure and its underlying dynamics. This explanatory model indicated causal links between intraspecific metabolic tactics of trees in response to their edaphoclimatic environment and associated attributes of forest structure. Some implications of the findings for tropical forest management are discussed.     

Roost site selection by southern forest bat Vespadelus regulus and Gould's long-eared bat Nyctophilus gouldi in logged jarrah forests; south-western Australia

Information on roosting requirements and responses to forest management is integral to effectively conserve and manage bat populations. Tree hollows are especially important for roosting bats given the long time taken for hollows to form. We used radiotelemetry to compare roost site selection in two species, Vespadelus regulus and Nyctophilus gouldi, in logged jarrah forests of south-western Australia. We compared characteristics of roost trees and forest structure around roost trees (n = 48) with randomly located plots at a local roost tree level (n = 90) in February and March 2009. For landscape features, we compared roost trees with randomly selected trees in the broader landscape that had cavities or exfoliating bark (n = 204). V. regulus roosted solely in hollows that were located predominantly in contemporarily unlogged buffers and mature forest while N. gouldi used a broader range of roost types, located in contemporarily unlogged buffers and mature forest and in retained habitat trees in gap release and shelterwood creation silvicultural treatments. In contrast with N. gouldi, which selected hollows or crevices under bark near the ground and close to vegetation, V. regulus used hollows that were high above ground and had little surrounding vegetation. Both species preferred large trees, in intermediate or advanced stages of decay and crown senescence. Bats changed roosts frequently, with short distances between subsequent roosts, suggesting a degree of spatial fidelity. Contemporarily unlogged buffers and mature forest contained higher densities of trees with hollows than gap release and shelterwood creation areas, potentially providing more alternate bat roosts. Our results demonstrate the importance of mature forest and unlogged buffers as bat roost sites in logged jarrah forests of south-western Australia, but the area of old forest required by these and co-occurring bat species remains to be determined.     

Wind Measurements in a Pine Forest During a Destructive Gale

Anemometer readings were recorded during a gale which blew downsome of the trees in an even-aged 16 m stand of Pinus sylvestrison sandy soil at Thetford forest. Gusts at the top of the canopyattained 17•5 m/sec. Wind profiles agreed well with thetheoretical logarithmic profile above the canopy and the exponentialprofile below. During the gale the zero plane displacement androughness length values were similar to those at lower windspeeds. It is therefore possible to estimate wind profiles andthe forces to which a tree in the crop is subjected from measurementsof wind speed at a single point within or above the forest.The wind speeds which blew trees down were much lower than thosepredicted as necessary from ‘tree pulling’ studiesin the same forest. This discrepancy suggests that any considerationof windthrow must take into account the effects of tree vibrationon the deterioration in the strength of the root-soil complex.     

On the influence of windward edge structure and stand density on the flow characteristics at forest edges

Experimental investigations in an atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnel were carried out in order to study both the influence of the windward edge structure and the stand density on the flow characteristics near the canopy top of forest edges. For the edge structure investigation, two different types of forest edges were used. The taper angle was varied three times for both edge types, and all tapered edges were combined with both dense and sparse forest stands. In addition, a configuration was investigated where the airflow in the trunk space of the dense forest was blocked completely by an impermeable wall. In order to study the influence of stand density, forest stands were varied three times by removing whole rows of the originally dense model forest. The measurements show that a forest edge induces strong disturbances in the flow field at the near-edge region leading to an increased momentum transfer and to an increased wind loading on trees. The region of significant disturbances extends to a distance of about eight tree heights. Both edge density and taper angle determine the amount of volume influx through the edge, which seems to be primarily responsible for the flow field properties near the canopy top. It was found that for sparse forest stands, sloping tapered edges reduce the wind velocities nearest to the canopy. It could also be shown that the positive skewness of the near-canopy longitudinal velocity distribution is diminished with decreasing taper angle indicating that higher wind velocity fluctuations are reduced.     

Response of species and stand types to snow/wind damage in a temperate secondary forest,Northeast China

Snow/wind damage is one of the important natural disturbances in forest ecosystems, especially in a montane secondary forest. However, the effects of snow/wind damage remain unclear which affects the management of these forests. Therefore, we investigated the responses of species, individual tree traits and stand structure to snow/wind damage in a montane secondary forest. Results show that, amongst the canopy trees, Betula costata exhibited the most uprooting, bending and overall damage ratio (the number of damaged stems to the total number of stems in a plot); Quercus mongolica showed the highest breakage ratio and Fraxinus mandshurica and Juglans mandshurica the least overall damage ratios. Among the subcanopy trees, Carpinus cordata, Acer mono, Acer tegmentosum and Acer pseudo-sieboldianum showed the least uprooting and breakage, and the most bending damage. A. pseudo-sieboldianum demonstrated the lowest breakage and highest bending damage ratios. These findings indicate that different species have various sensitivities to snow/wind damage. Larger trees (taller, wider crowns) tend to break and become uprooted, while smaller trees are bent or remain undamaged, suggesting that tree characteristics significantly influence the types of damage from snow and wind. Stands of Q. mongolica and B. costata had the highest damage ratios, whereas A. pseudo-sieboldianum had the lowest snapping ratio. In summary, the severity and type of snow/wind damage are related to individual tree attributes and stand-level characteristics. Therefore, selection of suitable species (e.g., shorter, smaller with deep root systems, hard wood, bending resistance and compression resistance) and appropriate thinning are recommended for planting in the montane secondary forests.