Characteristics of Noodles and Bread Prepared from Double‐Null Partial Waxy Wheat

Double‐null partial waxy wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flours were used for isolation of starch and preparation of white salted noodles and pan bread. Starch characteristics, textural properties of cooked noodles, and staling properties of bread during storage were determined and compared with those of wheat flours with regular amylose content. Starches isolated from double‐null partial waxy wheat flours contained 15.4–18.9% amylose and exhibited higher peak viscosity than starches of single‐null partial waxy and regular wheat flours, which contained 22.7–25.8% amylose. Despite higher protein content, double‐null partial waxy wheat flours, produced softer, more cohesive and less adhesive noodles than soft white wheat flours. With incorporation of partial waxy prime starches, noodles produced from reconstituted soft white wheat flours became softer, less adhesive, and more cohesive, indicating that partial waxy starches of low amylose content are responsible for the improvement of cooked white salted noodle texture. Partial waxy wheat flours with >15.1% protein produced bread of larger loaf volume and softer bread crumb even after storage than did the hard red spring wheat flour of 15.3% protein. Regardless of whether malt was used, bread baked from double‐null partial waxy wheat flours exhibited a slower firming rate during storage than bread baked from HRS wheat flour.     

Effects of Allelic Variations in Wx‐1, Glu‐D1, Glu‐B3, and Pinb‐D1 Loci on Flour Characteristics and White Salted Noodle‐Making Quality of Wheat Flour

Doubled haploid wheat lines developed from a cross between a hard white winter wheat variety of normal starch endosperm and a waxy wheat variety were used to determine the effects of allelic variation in Wx‐1, Glu‐D1, Glu‐B3, and Pinb‐D1 loci on physiochemical properties of flour, noodle dough properties, and textural quality of cooked noodles. Milling yield, damaged starch content, protein content, and SDS sedimentation volume of flour were influenced the most by allelic composition of Pinb‐D1 loci, less by Wx‐1 loci, and least by Glu‐B3. Wheat lines carrying Pinb‐D1b or Glu‐B3h alleles exhibited higher milling yield and damaged starch content of flour than those with Pinb‐D1a and Glu‐B3d alleles. Wheat lines carrying the Pinb‐D1b allele were higher in protein content and SDS sedimentation volume than those carrying Pinb‐D1a. Mixograph water absorption was largely influenced by allelic composition of Wx‐1 loci, whereas mixograph mixing time and mixing tolerance were predominantly determined by allelic composition of Glu‐D1 loci. Amylose content and pasting properties of starch were mainly determined by allelic composition of Wx‐1 loci with little influence by allelic compositions of Glu‐D1, Glu‐B3, and Pinb‐D1 loci. Allelic composition of Wx‐1 loci contributed 53.4% of the variation in optimum water absorption of noodle dough and 26.7% of the variation in thickness of the noodle dough sheet. The variation of 7.8% in optimum water absorption of noodle dough was contributed by the allelic composition of Pinb‐D1 loci. Allelic composition of Wx‐1 loci was responsible for 73.2, 74.4, and 59.6% in the variation of hardness, springiness, and cohesiveness of cooked noodles, respectively. Cohesiveness of cooked noodles was also influenced by the allelic compositions of Glu‐B3 and Pinb‐D1 loci to a smaller extent.     

Effect of Variation in Amylose Content and Puroindoline Composition on Bread Quality in a Hard Spring Wheat Population

Milling and breadbaking quality of hard‐textured wheat may be influenced by alternative alleles at the Wx loci controlling percent amylose in the endosperm, and the puroindoline (pin) loci controlling grain hardness. For this experiment, we developed recombinant inbred lines (RIL) from a cross between Choteau spring wheat cultivar and experimental line MTHW9904. Choteau has the PinB‐D1b mutation conferring grain hardness and the Wx‐B1a allele at the Wx‐B1 locus conferring wild‐type amylose content. MTHW9904 has the PinA‐D1b allele conferring grain hardness and the Wx‐B1b allele conferring lower amylose content, causing a partial waxy phenotype. RIL with the PinB‐D1b mutation (n = 49) had significantly softer kernels, higher break flour yield, and higher loaf volume than lines with the PinA‐D1b mutation (n = 38). Lines with partial waxy phenotype due to Wx‐B1b (n = 43) had significantly lower kernel weight, lower amylose content, and higher flour swelling power than lines with wild‐type starch due to Wx‐B1a (n = 51). These results provide additional evidence for the positive effect of PinB‐D1b on bread quality in hard wheats, while genotype at Wx‐B1 was generally neutral for bread quality in this population. Interactions between the Pin and Wx loci were minimal.     

Genotypic and Environmental Modification of Asian Noodle Quality of Hard Winter Wheats

The relative effects of environment, genotype, and their interactions on the modification of Asian noodle quality attributes were assessed using 38 winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars and breeding lines grown in replicated trials at three Nebraska locations in harvest year 2000. Noodle color was determined in both white salted and yellow alkaline procedures, and noodle textural features were investigated by producing white salted noodles. Significant environmental, genotypic, and genotype‐by‐environment variation was observed for nearly all initial and 24‐hr noodle color traits in both types of noodles. Significant genotypic effects were observed for several textural traits, while significant environmental effects were observed only for noodle hardness and water uptake. However, among the noodle textural traits, the genotype‐by‐environment interaction was significant only for noodle firmness. High and significant phenotypic correlations were observed between color traits in the two noodle applications. Genetic correlations were of lower magnitude, indicating the possibility of breeding wheats specifically for various noodle color types. Strong negative phenotypic and genetic correlations were observed between flour protein content and noodle brightness (L*) values in both yellow alkaline and white‐salted applications. Textural traits largely were independent of noodle color traits. When significant phenotypic or genetic correlations were observed between variable pairs, invariably similar correlations were observed with flour protein content. Noodle cutting force, cutting area, and final thickness showed strong phenotypic and genetic correlations with each other and with protein content. These variables largely were independent of noodle firmness and hardness, which were, in turn, more dependent on alleles at the wheat wx‐A1 and wx‐B1 (waxy) loci. Noodle firmness was greatest in flours from wild‐type wheats; lines with a null allele only at the wx‐A1 locus did not differ from wild‐type. Softest noodles were produced from lines carrying null alleles at both wx‐A1 and wx‐B1, while lines with a null only at wx‐B1 were intermediate in softness.     

Impacts of SSIIa‐A Null Allele on Durum Wheat Noodle Quality

A small increase in amylose content may impact end‐product quality of wheat. The effect of elevated amylose content in durum wheat is not known. We surveyed 255 durum wheat accessions and found two genotypes that lacked the SGP‐A1 protein. These genotypes were crossed to Mountrail, an adapted durum genotype, to create populations segregating for the SSIIa‐Ab null allele. Our goal was to determine the influence of allelic variation at the SSIIa‐A locus on semolina properties and end‐product quality with noodles as a test product. Amylose content increased 3% and cooked noodle firmness increased 2.8 g·cm for the SSIIa‐Ab class compared with the SSIIa‐Aa class for the PI 330546 source, but no change in either trait was detected between classes for the IG 86304 source. The SSIIa‐Ab class had a 10% reduction in flour swelling compared with the SSIIa‐Aa class for both crosses. Grain protein and semolina yield did not differ between SSIIa‐A classes. The relationship between flour swelling power and noodle firmness did not differ between SSIIa‐A allelic classes within a cross. The different results for amylose content and noodle firmness between these sources may be because the two sources of the SSIIa‐Ab null mutation contributed different linkages to the segregating populations. Results show that the SSIIa‐Ab allele could be used to produce durum‐based products that are slightly more firm in texture. However, the effect of the SSIIa‐Ab allele may depend on the source.     

Assessment of Oriental Noodle Appearance as a Function of Flour Refinement and Noodle Type by Image Analysis

Fresh alkaline and white salted noodle sheets prepared from patent and straight‐grade flours of the western Canadian wheat class Canadian Prairie Spring White (CPSW), Karma and Vista, were visually characterized by image analysis over a 24‐hr period. In both cultivars, the number of specks increased with time although the actual numbers were significantly influenced by both detection size and sensitivity. Maximum speck generation was observed in Karma's straight‐grade kansui noodle sheets, increasing from 12.9 specks/cm² at 1 hr to 58.0 after 24 hr. Lowest speck numbers were observed in Vista's patent white salted noodle sheets with 4.5 specks/cm² at 1 hr increasing to 5.6 after 24 hr. The image analysis system was able to show that in combination with a significant cultivar effect, both flour refinement and noodle type significantly influenced the number of discolored specks detected over time. Straight‐grade flours yielded more specks than the patent flours, while salted noodle sheets consistently had fewer specks compared with their kansui noodle sheets at all time intervals. No differences were detected in the average size of the specks due to cultivar or noodle type in the patent flour noodle sheets. Noodle sheets made from Karma straight‐grade flour had significantly larger specks than noodle sheets made from Vista's straight‐grade flour for both noodle types. Patent flour kansui specks were lighter than their salted counterparts. Straight‐grade noodle specks were darker than their corresponding patent flours, but this difference was significant only in the kansui noodle sheets. Specks of all noodle sheets were characterized by darkness distribution profiles that highlighted key differences between the wheat cultivar samples due to noodle type and flour refinement.     

Interactions Among Wx Genes and Effects of a Mutated Wx‐D1e Allele on Starch Properties in Wheat

The waxy mutant wheat Tanikei A6599‐4 contains little amylose and exhibits a stable hot paste viscosity. It has null alleles at the Wx‐A1 and Wx‐B1 loci and a mutated allele at the Wx‐D1 locus (Wx‐D1e). From the cross‐combination of Kanto 123 (normal amylose line) and Tanikei A6599‐4, 51 DH (doubled haploid) lines were produced and their genotypes were determined by SDS‐PAGE and a derived cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (dCAPS) analysis. Eight genotypes were obtained at the expected ratio. Using a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA), all the lines with the same genotype as Tanikei A6599‐4 showed a stable hot paste viscosity. The other lines did not show a stable hot paste viscosity regardless of the presence of the Wx‐D1e allele. When two genotypes with the same Wx‐A1 and Wx‐B1 alleles were compared, the one with Wx‐D1e contained less amylose and exhibited a lower final viscosity and a lower setback with RVA. Although the Wx‐D1e allele produces an almost inactive Wx protein, these findings suggest that this allele contributes at some level to starch synthesis.     

Protein and Quality Characterization of Complete and Partial Near‐Isogenic Lines of Waxy Wheat

The objective of this study was to evaluate protein composition and its effects on flour quality and physical dough test parameters using waxy wheat near‐isogenic lines. Partial waxy (single and double nulls) and waxy (null at all three waxy loci, Wx‐A1, Wx‐B1, and Wx‐D1) lines of N11 set (bread wheat) and Svevo (durum) were investigated. For protein composition, waxy wheats in this study had relatively lower albumins‐globulins than the hard winter wheat control. In the bread wheats (N11), dough strength as measured by mixograph peak dough development time (MDDT) (r = 0.75) and maximum resistance (R_max) (r = 0.70) was significantly correlated with unextractable polymeric protein (UPP), whereas in durum wheats, moderate correlation was observed (r = 0.73 and 0.59, respectively). This may be due to the presence of high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW‐GS) Dx2+Dy12 at the Glu‐D1 locus instead of Dx5+Dy10, which are associated with dough strength. Significant correlation of initial loaf volume (ILV) to flour polymeric protein (FPP) (r = 0.75) and flour protein (FP) (r = 0.63) was found in bread wheats, whereas in durum wheats, a weak correlation of ILV was observed with FP (r = 0.09) and FPP (r =0.51). Significant correlation of ILV with FPP in bread wheats and with % polymeric protein (PPP) (r = 0.75) in durum lines indicates that this aspect of end‐use functionality is influenced by FPP and PPP, respectively, in these waxy wheat lines. High ILV was observed with 100% waxy wheat flour alone and was not affected by 50% blending with bread wheat flour. However, dark color and poor crumb structure was observed with 100% waxy flour, which was unacceptable to consumers. As the amylopectin content of the starch increases, loaf expansion increases but the crumb structure becomes increasingly unstable and collapses.     

End Use Quality of Waxy Wheat Flour in Various Grain‐Based Foods

The practical applications of flour from waxy (amylose‐free) hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) were assessed. The applications evaluated were bread, cakes, white salted noodles, and pasta for gyoza. An excessive addition of waxy hexaploid wheat flour to total wheat flour (>20%) resulted in poorer functional properties (sticky, lumpy, or less crispy textures) in almost every end use product. However, incorporation of <20% waxy hexaploid wheat flour, produced considerable improvement in shelf‐life characteristics. After one day of storage, the bread from flour including waxy hexaploid wheat flour maintained moistness, softness, and stickiness. This application of waxy hexaploid wheat flour as an antistaling ingredient was also confirmed in cake products. Tests were also conducted on alimentary pasta products. In alimentary pasta, waxy hexaploid wheat flour was most effective when utilized for frozen fried dumplings (gyoza). By using flour including 30 or 50% waxy hexaploid wheat flour, the problem of firmness was solved without other ingredients. In conclusion, flour from waxy hexaploid wheat may be useful in developing more increased staling‐ and freezing‐tolerant grain‐based foods. Starch properties could be responsible for these improved characteristics.     

Impact of Null Polyphenol Oxidase Alleles on White Salted Noodles

Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) causes Asian noodles to lose their bright color over time. Null Ppo‐A1 and Ppo‐D1 alleles are available that confer very low kernel PPO levels. Our goal was to characterize the effect of the Ppo‐A1i and Ppo‐D1f null alleles on the color and texture profile of white salted noodles. A white‐seeded spring wheat carrying Ppo‐A1i/Ppo‐A2d and Ppo‐D1f was crossed to a hard white‐seeded isoline of Choteau spring wheat with Ppo‐A1b/Ppo‐A2a and Ppo‐D1b and to a hard white‐seeded isoline of Vida spring wheat with Ppo‐A1a/Ppo‐A2b and Ppo‐D1b. Resultant lines homozygous for the null‐Ppo alleles or for the alternate parent Ppo alleles were selected and grown in replicated trials. The null‐Ppo alleles had no detrimental effects on kernel or flour traits. Noodles prepared from straight‐grade or whole wheat flour from the null‐Ppo allele class were less cohesive and softer than noodles from the alternate parent Ppo allele class for the White Choteau but not the White Vida population. Noodles prepared from straight‐grade and whole wheat flour from the null‐Ppo class were brighter, more red, and more yellow after 24 h and showed less change in L* with time than noodles prepared from the alternate parent Ppo class. The relative difference between the two genotype classes for change in L* with time (0–24 h) exceeded 3.5 L* for noodles from both types of flour, which was an improvement over existing low‐Ppo alleles. Incorporating the null‐Ppo alleles into wheat varieties could improve the color profile of Asian noodles.     

Rheological Properties of White Salted Noodles with Different Amylose Content at Small and Large Deformation

The rheological properties of cooked white salted noodles made from eight wheat cultivars with varied amylose content were analyzed at small and large deformation. Their dynamic shear viscoelasticity was measured using a rheometer with parallel plate geometry. Compressive force and creep‐recovery curves were measured using various probes and sample shapes. Noodles with lower amylose content showed a lower storage shear modulus (G′) and a higher frequency dependence of G′. The G′ values of noodles were highly correlated with amylose content in wheat flour and with G′ values of 30 and 40% starch gels. Remarkable differences in the characteristics of creep‐recovery curves were observed between cultivars. The difference in amylose content in wheat flour reflected the creep‐recovery properties of noodles. A negative correlation was demonstrated between amylose content and both maximum creep and recovery compliance. The compressive force required for 20, 50, 80, and 95% strains was compared. At 20 and 50% strain, noodles made from lower amylose wheat flour showed lower compressive force. Noodles of waxy wheat had a higher compressive force than nonwaxy noodles when the strain was >80%, indicating the waxy wheat noodles are soft but difficult to completely cut through.     

Significance of Starch Properties and Quantity on Sponge Cake Volume

We evaluated the qualitative and quantitative effects of wheat starch on sponge cake (SC) baking quality. Twenty wheat flours, including soft white and club wheat of normal, partial waxy, and waxy endosperm, as well as hard wheat, were tested for amylose content, pasting properties, and SC baking quality. Starches isolated from wheat flours of normal, single‐null partial waxy, double‐null partial waxy, and waxy endosperm were also tested for pasting properties and baked into SC. Double‐null partial waxy and waxy wheat flours produced SC with volume of 828–895 mL, whereas volume of SC baked from normal and single‐null partial waxy wheat flours ranged from 1,093 to 1,335 mL. The amylose content of soft white and club wheat flour was positively related to the volume of SC (r = 0.790, P < 0.001). Pasting temperature, peak viscosity, final viscosity, breakdown, and setback also showed significant relationships with SC volume. Normal and waxy starch blends having amylose contents of 25, 20, 15, and 10% produced SCs with volume of 1,570, 1,435, 1,385, and 1,185 mL, respectively. At least 70 g of starch or at least 75% starch in 100 g of starch–gluten blend in replacement of 100 g of wheat flour in the SC baking formula was needed to produce SC having the maximum volume potential. Starch properties including amylose content and pasting properties as well as proportion of starch evidently play significant roles in SC baking quality of wheat flour.     

Comparison of Quality‐Related Alleles Among Australian and North American Wheat Classes Exported to Japan

Grain hardness, amylose content, and glutenin subunit composition are critical determinants for end‐use properties of wheat. To improve the end‐use properties of domestic wheats, we studied these traits between the Australian and North American wheat classes exported to Japan in 2009 and 2011 by analyzing the corresponding alleles. Most hard classes had Pina‐D1b or Pinb‐D1b. A partial waxy allele (Wx‐B1b) was found in all Australian Standard White (ASW) seeds in 2009 and two‐thirds of ASW seeds in 2011. All or most American hard wheat seeds had Glu‐D1d. Most U.S. Western White (WW) seeds had a null allele (Glu‐A1c) or alleles that lacked one of the two Glu‐B1 subunits. Most hard red winter (HRW) seeds had Glu‐B3b or Glu‐B3g. Quality characteristics of these classes seemed to be consistent with these results. In addition, we also found new Glu‐1 and Glu‐3 alleles in HRW and WW. These results suggested that although there are variations in its allelic composition from year to year, each class has unique quality‐related alleles corresponding to its end use. We proposed two matrices for classification of starch properties on the basis of Pin and Wx allelic combinations and for classification of gluten strength on the basis of glutenin allelic combinations.     

Functional Characteristics of Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Near‐Isogenic Lines Differing at the Waxy (Wx) Locus

The Waxy (Wx) gene in hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) encodes granule‐bound starch synthase (GBSS1), which is involved in the synthesis of amylose, a mostly linear glucan polymer that makes up ∼25% of wheat starch. A null mutation of the Wx gene in each of the three genomes is associated with starch almost entirely consisting of the branched glucan polymer amylopectin (waxy starch), with corresponding changes in functionality. However, the rheological behavior of partially waxy starch remains unclear. The objective of this study was to characterize flour and baking quality in 16 near‐isogenic lines, null at the Wx locus on zero, one, two, or all three genomes, grown in four different environments. Across allelic groups, significant variations in amylose concentrations, flour paste viscosity, loaf structure and texture, dough stability, and proximate variables were observed. Because waxy wheat starch has greater water absorbance and resistance to retrogradation than normal starch, its inclusion in flour blends has been suggested as a means of improving the texture and appearance of bakery products and noodles. The results indicate that wheat encoding <3 functional homeologs of GBSS1 produces starch that has potential in the production of certain food items, such as Asian noodles. However, further research is necessary to determine the optimal amylose‐to‐amylopectin ratio to improve baking quality.     

Environmental Influences on Flour Quality for Sheeted Noodles in Idaho 377s Hard White Wheat

Production of common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the Pacific Northwest of the United States specifically for Asian noodle products is a relatively new goal for grain producers. We surveyed commercial fields of the hard white spring wheat cultivar Idaho 377s in two years to determine the variables contributing to Asian noodle quality and to validate previous observations made with small‐plot research. Fields were surveyed in 1998 and 1999 in two areas of the Snake River Plain of southeastern Idaho separated by ≈100 km, with both irrigated fields and rain‐fed fields sampled in both zones. Samples were evaluated for grain characteristics then milled and evaluated for flour quality, alkaline noodle color, and color and texture of nonalkaline Chinese (salted, neutral pH) noodles. Grain from rain‐fed fields produced brighter and more yellow alkaline noodles than grain from irrigated fields. Grain produced in rain‐fed fields also had lower peak flour pasting viscosity than grain produced in irrigated fields. Flour ash was lowest in grain from rain‐fed fields located in a higher elevation district (Upper Valley) and greatest in grain from irrigated fields located in a lower elevation district (Lower Valley). Noodle hardness and chewiness were greater in Chinese noodles made from grain produced in the Upper Valley than grain from the Lower Valley. Chinese noodle color had significant interaction with the location and irrigation management used for producing the grain. However, Chinese noodle brightness was consistently negatively correlated with flour protein concentration. The color and texture of noodles produced from flours milled from on‐farm commercial production was consistent with previous experiment station small‐plot research.     

Composition of HMW and LMW Glutenin Subunits and Their Effects on Dough Properties,Pan Bread,and Noodle Quality of Chinese Bread Wheats

Knowledge of composition of high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW‐GS) and low molecular weight glutenin subunits (LMW‐GS) and their associations with pan bread and noodle quality will contribute to genetically improving processing quality of Chinese bread wheats. Two trials including a total of 158 winter and facultative cultivars and advanced lines were conducted to detect the allelic variation at Glu‐1 and Glu‐3 loci by SDS‐PAGE electrophoresis and to understand their effects on dough properties, pan bread, and dry white Chinese noodle (DWCN) quality. Results indicate that subunits/alleles 1 and null at Glu‐A1, 7+8 and 7+9 at Glu‐B1, 2+12 and 5+10 at Glu‐D1, alleles a and d at Glu‐A3, and alleles j and d at Glu‐B3 predominate in Chinese germplasm, and that 34.9% of the tested genotypes carry the 1B/1R translocation (allelic variation at Glu‐D3 was not determined because no significant effects were reported previously). Both variations at HMW‐GS and LMW‐GS/alleles and loci interactions contribute to dough properties and processing quality. For dough strength related traits such as farinograph stability and extensigraph maximum resistance and loaf volume, subunits/alleles 1, 7+8, 5+10, and Glu‐A3d are significantly better than those of their counterpart allelic variation, however, no significant difference was observed for the effects of d, b, and f at Glu‐B3 on these traits. For extensigraph extensibility, only subunits 1 and 7+8 are significantly better than their counterpart alleles, and alleles d and b at Glu‐B3 are slightly better than others. For DWCN quality, no significant difference is observed for HMW‐GS at Glu‐1, and Glu‐A3d and Glu‐B3d are slightly better than other alleles. Glu‐B3j, associated the 1B/1R translocation, has a strong negative effect on all quality traits except protein content. It is recommended that selection for subunits/alleles 1, 7+8, 5+10, and Glu‐A3d could contribute to improving gluten quality and pan bread quality. Reducing the frequency of the 1B/1R translocation will be crucial to wheat quality improvement in China.     

Quality Characteristics of Fresh and Dried White Salted Noodles Enriched with Flour from Hull‐less Barley Genotypes of Diverse Amylose Content

Fresh and dried white salted noodles (WSN) were prepared by incorporating up to 40% flour from hull‐less barley (HB) genotypes with normal amylose, waxy, zero amylose waxy (ZAW), and high amylose (HA) starch into a 60% extraction Canada Prairie Spring White (cv. AC Vista) wheat flour. The HB flours, depending on genotype, contained four to six times the concentration of β‐glucan of the wheat flour, offering potential health benefits. The HB‐enriched noodles were made with conventional equipment without difficulty. Noodles containing 40% HB flour required less work input during sheeting, probably due to higher optimum water absorption and weakening of the dough due to dilution of wheat gluten. The addition of HB flour had a negative impact on WSN color and appearance, as evident from decreased brightness, increased redness, and more visible specking. The impact of HB flour on cooked WSN texture varied by starch type. Enrichment with HA or normal starch HB flour produced WSN with bite and chewiness values equivalent to or superior to the wheat flour control. Addition of waxy and ZAW HB flour resulted in WSN with lower values for bite and chewiness. The diversity of HB starch types allows tailoring of WSN texture to satisfy specific markets. HB flour also has potential as an ingredient in novel noodle products targeting health‐conscious consumers who associate darker colored cereal‐based foods with superior nutritional composition.     

Measurement of Color,Gloss, and Translucency of White Salted Noodles: Effects of Water Addition and Vacuum Mixing

Sensory evaluation showed panelists could detect small differences in gloss and translucency in boiled white salted noodles (WSN) but sensory evaluation requires significant resources. Methods for the measurement of noodle gloss and translucency in boiled WSN were developed and the effects of hardness, protein, water addition, and vacuum mixing on these visual sensory characteristics and color (as measured by CIE L*, a*, and b*) were investigated. Noodles derived from hard wheats at low flour protein contents were more translucent than noodles from soft wheat flour at low protein. This trend changed at the highest flour protein contents observed. Translucency of the soft wheat noodles increased to levels equal to or exceeding the translucency of high protein hard wheat noodles. Translucency of all noodle varieties increased as flour protein increased. CIE L* decreased, a* increased, and b* increased when water addition to dough increased from 30 to 35%, but there was no further effect on color when water addition was increased to >35% for raw soft and hard WSN. Boiled noodle translucency was significantly increased when water addition to the dough was increased from 35 to 38% and when noodles made from soft wheat flour were mixed under vacuum. Vacuum mixing significantly increased gloss of boiled noodles made from soft wheat flours.     

Milling Quality and White Salt Noodle Color of Chinese Winter Wheat Cultivars

Improvement of milling quality is an important aspect in wheat breeding programs. However, the milling quality of Chinese wheats remains largely unexplored. Fifty‐seven Chinese winter wheat cultivars from four regions were used to investigate the variation of milling quality parameters and to determine the associations between milling quality traits and color of noodle sheet. Substantial variation was presented for all measured parameters in this germplasm pool. Complete soft, hard, and medium‐hard types were observed. Soft wheat and hard wheat show significant differences in flour ash content, flour bran area, and flour color grade. No simple trait can be used to select for flour milling quality. High flour ash content and bran speck area contributed negatively to brightness of dry flour. Correlation coefficients (r) between L* value of dry flour and flour ash content and bran speck area were ‐0.47 and ‐0.65 for hard cultivars, and ‐0.51 and ‐0.72 for soft cultivars, respectively. Flour color grade (FCG) was significantly and positively associated with bran speck area; r = 0.56 and 0.73 for hard and soft wheats, respectively. There was a high correlation between FCG and L* value of flour water slurry (r = ‐0.95). Strong associations were also established between milling quality index (MQI) and FCG, L* value of dry flour, flour‐water slurry, and white salted noodle sheet for both hard and soft wheats. In conclusion, substantial progress could be achieved in improvement of milling quality in Chinese winter wheats through genetic selection, and FCG and MQI could be two important parameters for evaluation of milling quality in breeding programs.     

Evaluation of White Salted Noodles Enriched with Oat Flour

Oat consumption is regarded as having significant health benefits. The enrichment of white salted noodles with oat flour would provide a potential health benefit but may affect the texture and sensory quality. Oat cultivars grown in Western Australia (Yallara, Kojonup, Mitika, Carrolup, and new line SV97181‐8) and a commercial oat variety were milled into flour and added to wheat flour at 10, 20, and 30% to produce oat‐enriched white salted noodles. The purpose of the study was to determine the quality characteristics of the oat flours and to assess the influence the oat flour blends had on noodle texture, color, and sensory characteristics. In addition, another goal was to determine whether the different oat cultivars had similar potential to provide health benefits by measuring the β‐glucan content before and after processing. The results indicated that protein, ash content, and noodle firmness increased with the increased percentage of oat flour in the noodle formulations, whereas the pasting properties of the noodle wheat–oat flour blends did not differ significantly. The color of raw noodle sheets and boiled noodles changed significantly with oat incorporation and resulted in lower lightness/brightness, higher redness, lower yellowness, and lower color stability in comparison to standard wheat white salted noodles. Noodles made with the lowest oat percentage (10%) scored highest for all sensory parameters and were significantly different in appearance, color, and overall acceptability compared with noodles made with 20 and 30% oat flour. The β‐glucan content of the flour blends increased with the increase in the level of oat incorporation but subsequently decreased during processing into noodles. The decrease in the β‐glucan content varied across the different oat cultivars and levels of incorporation into the noodles. A new oat cultivar, SV97181‐8, exhibited the least β‐glucan loss during processing. In this study, the quality characteristics of white salted noodles enriched with oat flour from Western Australian cultivars were determined to provide essential information for the commercial development of healthier noodles.