Danger to pigs due to crushing can be reduced by the use of a simulated udder.

Sows that lie on their young, pig "crushing", is a significant cause of pig mortality in current production systems. Although mortality rates of pigs in farrowing crates are lower than mortality rates of pigs in pens, loss due to crushing is still estimated to be between 4.8 and 18%. During the first few days after parturition, pigs are highly attracted to the odor of their dam's udder. Thus, our research was designed to move the pigs away from the sow by competing with the sow's udder using a "simulated" udder. Fifteen Yorkshire x Landrace sows and their litters (11.4+/-.78 pigs) were assigned to either a control (C, n = 9) or an experimental group (SU, n = 6). The C pigs had access to a heat lamp, whereas the SU pigs' crate had a simulated udder. Data were collected using time-lapse photography (1 frame/.4 s) for a 3-d duration at the initiation of farrowing. When a sow stood, data were recorded by 1-min scan samples to record the number of pigs using either the heat lamp or the simulated udder. In addition, stillborn pigs, pig crushing, and death by other means also were recorded. Data were analyzed by 12-h periods using generalized estimating equations. Results indicate that from 12 to 72 h postpartum, excluding 24 to 36 h postpartum, the estimated probability that pigs were in a safe area (simulated udder or heat lamp) was .89 for SU pigs, compared with only .72 for C pigs (P = .005). During the 24- to 36-h period, it was more probable to find pigs on a simulated udder (.77) than under only a heat lamp (.61, P = .016). Stillborn pigs, pig crushing, and death by other means were not different between treatments (mean = .87, .60, 1.2; P>.20). The simulated udder drew pigs away from the sow's udder better than heat lamps alone. Considering these findings, mortality of pigs due to crushing may be decreased substantially using a simulated udder. These results are promising, but further refinement should be done, including improved udder design and investigation of the attractiveness of various stimuli.     

Effects of late introduction of sows to two farrowing environments on the progress of farrowing and maternal behavior

To evaluate the effect of late introduction to farrowing pens on the progress of farrowing and maternal behavior, 20 primiparous and 20 multiparous sows were allocated randomly to 1 of 2 treatments: 1) early introduction to pen (EP, n = 20) and 2) late introduction to pen (LP, n = 20). To evaluate the difference between loose-housed sows and crated sows when introduced late to the farrowing environment, a third treatment was included: late introduction to farrowing crate (LC, n = 20). Sow behavior and piglet birth intervals were recorded using video recordings from 16 h before the birth of the first piglet (BFP) until 48 h after BFP. Behavioral data were analyzed using PROC MIXED in SAS and the percentage of stillborn piglets and the response of the sow to piglet scream were analyzed using PROC GENMOD in SAS. Before farrowing (16 to 3 h before BFP), sows introduced late to pens had more postural changes per hour than sows introduced early to pens (LP = 12.7, EP = 8.9; P = 0.04), whereas there were no differences between sows introduced late to crates and sows introduced late to pens (LC = 14.2, LP = 12.7; P = 0.53). Interbirth interval (P = 0.04), variation in the interbirth interval (P = 0.01), and percentage of stillborn piglets (P = 0.003) were affected by an interaction between parity and treatment. In multiparous sows there were no differences between treatments (P > 0.18) either in the progress of farrowing or in the percentage of stillborn piglets. For primiparous sows, there were no differences (P > 0.22) between sows that were introduced late to pens and sows that were introduced early to pens. Primiparous sows that were introduced late to crates compared with pens had longer interbirth intervals (LC = 29 +/- 4.9 min, LP = 16 +/- 2.9 min; P = 0.02), a greater variation of these intervals (LC = 35 +/- 8.3 min, LP = 16 +/- 3.6 min; P = 0.006), and a greater percentage of stillborn piglets (LC = 21%; 95% confidence interval ranging 14 to 30%, LP = 5%; 95% confidence interval ranging from 2 to 12%; P = 0.004). After farrowing, neither postural changes, time spent in lateral lying, number of near-crushing situations, nor the response to piglet scream test were affected by treatment (P > 0.09). When sows and gilts were introduced late to farrowing pens, neither progress of farrowing nor maternal behavior of importance for piglet crushing was influenced. However, crating primiparous sows that were introduced late to the farrowing environment compared with pen housing had detrimental effects on the progress of farrowing and the percentage of stillborn piglets.     

Impacts of a freedom farrowing pen design on sow behaviours and performance

The limited space in farrowing crate imposes many challenges, such as prolonged farrowing duration and high piglet stillbirth rate. Although the features of farrowing pens compensate for the drawbacks of farrowing crates, they are associated with high piglet crushing mortality caused by the greater space afforded to sows and their rolling-over behaviour. Therefore, a freedom farrowing pen was designed to overcome the drawbacks of both farrowing crates and farrowing pens. The main features of the freedom farrowing pen are its left anti-crushing bar and detachable right anti-crushing bar on the sides of the sow lying area. It also has a 10 cm-high anti-crushing bar in the non-lying area. Eighteen healthy, multiparous Yorkshire sows (3-7 parity) were averaged and randomly assigned to farrowing crates, farrowing pens, and freedom farrowing pens to compare the effects of the farrowing systems on sow behaviour and performance. Results showed that the farrowing duration and the mean piglet birth intervals were longer for the sows in farrowing crates than for those in farrowing pens and freedom farrowing pens (P<0.05), but there was no difference between the sows in farrowing pens and those in freedom farrowing pens (P>0.05). The piglet stillbirth rate was higher for the sows in farrowing crates than for those in farrowing pens and freedom farrowing pens (P<0.001). Crushing mortality was higher among piglets in farrowing pens (P<0.001), but there was no difference between piglets in freedom farrowing pens and those in farrowing crates (P>0.05). The freedom farrowing pen and the farrowing pen allowed sows to turn around and move freely, but because of the different structures of their anti-crushing bars, the increase in sow movement did not cause higher piglet crushing mortality (P>0.05). Sows in freedom farrowing pens were found to be more protective of their piglets.     

Evaluation of methods of providing supplemental heat to newborn pigs during and after farrowing.

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate systems of providing supplemental heat to newborn pigs during and after farrowing. In Exp. 1, 35 sows were randomly allotted to farrowing crates with two supplemental heat treatments: 1) two lateral 250-watt heat lamps; and 2) two lateral heat lamps, plus a 250-watt heat lamp behind the sow during farrowing. In Exp. 2, 72 sows were randomly assigned to farrowing crates with four supplemental heat treatments: 1) one lateral 250-watt heater; 2) one lateral heater plus a 250-watt heater behind the sow during farrowing; 3) a hover with 100-watt light bulb; and 4) a hover with light bulb plus heater behind the sow during farrowing. The average farrowing house temperature was 18.9 degrees C in Exp. 1 and 21.6 degrees C in Exp. 2. Results showed no significant treatment effects on preweaning pig survival or growth rates in either experiment. Thus, providing a heat lamp at the rear of the sow during parturition was not beneficial and would increase operating costs. Hovers have a higher initial cost than conventional heat lamps or heaters, but they would have a much lower operating cost. Hovers may offer swine producers a way of reducing energy costs without affecting preweaning pig survival and performance.     

An exploratory study on the effects of a straw dispenser in farrowing crates

The effect of a straw dispenser in farrowing crates was investigated to determine the extent to which the provision of small quantities of straw has an influence on both sows and piglets. Sows and suckling piglets are often housed in barren environments with limited opportunities to show behavior they are highly motivated to perform. Enriching the environment might be a solution; for example, by providing materials that can be manipulated. In this study, 20 sows received a straw dispenser with chopped straw (treatment group) and 20 other sows did not receive any enrichment (control group). The treatment group was split up in 2: in treatment group A, the straw dispenser was placed in front of the sow, above the feed trough; and in treatment group B, the straw dispenser was placed next to the sow. Sows from the treatment groups received the straw dispenser from arrival in the farrowing crate until weaning. The total straw use within the treatment group was very variable but did not differ before and after farrowing. Sows took on average 53.0 g (±8.85) straw from the straw dispenser during the whole period in the farrowing crate. The frequency of undesirable and stereotypical behavior performed by the sows did not differ between treatment and control groups, and the same is seen with nest-building behavior before farrowing. By positioning the dispenser in front of the sow, the frequency of lateral lying increased, which means the udder was exposed more toward the piglets. This was reflected in the higher frequency of udder activity, performed by piglets from this treatment group. By positioning the dispenser next to the sow, sows showed more ventral lying behavior, because of disturbance of lying behavior by piglets. Piglets from this treatment group also showed less udder activity and possibly because of this, more pain-related behavior. These piglets performed more playing behavior in the third week of life compared with other groups, but it cannot be stated with certainty that this is a positive effect. A lower weight gain and weaning weight were seen in piglets within treatment group B. Possible explanations are the higher level of activity among these piglets as the straw dispenser was positioned within their reach or decreased milk consumption because of decreased udder activity and increased ventral lying by the sows. It can be concluded that the straw dispenser has positive effects on the behavior and welfare of sows and piglets, but positioning the straw dispenser in reach of both sow and piglets is not preferred as it is associated with undesirable effects on behavior such as ventral lying in sows and pain-related behaviors in piglets.     

Flooring preference and behavior in sound and lame sows

The objectives of this study were to assess sow flooring preference and behavior during sound, induced lame and lameness recovery states. Thirty-four multiparous, non-pregnant sows were compared prior to and following lameness induction (day 0). Behavior was recorded on six days (days ?1, +1, +2, +3, +4 and +10). Three flooring locations (Alley, Concrete and Mat) and four behaviors (lying lateral, lying sternal, sitting and standing) were recorded. Sows increased Mat frequency and decreased Alley frequency on day +1 (most lame) relative to day ?1. Lying lateral frequency increased, whereas lying sternal and standing frequencies decreased between day ?1 and day +1. Sows appear to prefer the Mat within 24?h following lameness induction. Lying lateral is likely a more comfortable position than standing or lying sternal in these lame sows. In conclusion, these behaviors may be reliable indicators to further ascertain if a sow is lame.     

Rolling behaviour of sows in relation to piglet crushing on sloped versus level floor pens

The study focused on the rolling behaviour of sows and the crushing of piglets by sows' rolling behaviour. The experiment examined the influence of sloped floor in loose housed farrowing pens on the rolling behaviour of sows and crushing of piglets. The experimental unit was made up of 24 pens. There were two experimental pen designs with piglet creep in the corner of the pen and piglet creep across the end of the pen, respectively. Both of the experimental pen designs had a 10% sloped floor in the sow's resting area. The two control pen designs were identical to the experimental pen designs, but with a level floor. The behaviour of 85 sows and their litters was continuously video recorded. Behavioural observations were made from birth of the first piglet and until 3 days after birth of the first piglet. Rolling behaviour of sows caused significantly more trapped piglets under the sow than lying down from standing (P = 0.04). Rolling behaviour caused 64% of the trapped piglets and lying down from standing caused 36% of the trapped piglets. Rolling from udder to side without protection trapped significantly more piglets than rolling from udder to side near slanted wall or piglet protection rails and rolling from side to udder (P < 0.001). With a certain pen design sloped floor reduced rolling from udder to side without protection (P = 0.007) and reduced the number of trapped piglets (P = 0.01), but results concerning lying behaviour showed that sloped floor pushed sows to rest on the level part of the floor. The results indicate that rolling behaviour that crushes piglets can be reduced, and sows prefer to lie on a level floor.     

The raising of pigs--modern and fair to the animals

A sow can cope better with a husbandry system if a new situation is in accordance with her expectations and if she has been prepared sufficiently for the social and technical problems, she will have to face. In relation with applied ethology this means, that a sow should be prepared adequately for a group-housing system of pregnant sows, by a previous establishment of the social hierarchy in her (sub)group; a previous training in operating the feeding station; providing a part of the house where she is safe for aggressive other sows; providing two simultaneous and undisturbed meals of roughage per day for all sows; providing appropriate possibilities for locomotory and for exploratory behaviour. For a farrowing house are the following provisions required: the lying places (farrowing nest) shall be clearly distinguishable for the sows; sufficient long straw for allowing satisfactory nest building shall be present in the nests; a sow shall be able to turn around in the farrowing nest; the sows shall be able to ly in a position with their heads close together; the feeding station shall be in the nearest proximity; the piglets shall be able to mix gradually after their first week of life.     

Farrowing hut design and sow genotype (Camborough-15 vs 25% Meishan) effects on outdoor sow and litter productivity

Performance measures were evaluated for 125 outdoor sows and litters of two crossbred genotypes (Camborough-15 and 25% Meishan) and in two farrowing hut designs (American-style and English-style hut). Contemporary breeding groups of second-parity sows were evaluated in an intensive, outdoor research unit. Sow genotype and hut designs were arranged factorially. Seven complete blocks were evaluated over a 21-wk period. No interactions between environment and genotype were identified for sow and litter productivity. Litters farrowing in the English-style huts weaned 1.5 more (P < .05) piglets per sow (because of a lower preweaning mortality, P = .05) than did litters in the American-style huts. The 25% Meishan weaned 1.7 more (P < .01) pigs per sow than Camborough-15, because of a greater number of piglets born alive. The effects of hut style and genotype were additive and 25% Meishan sows in English-style huts weaned an average (+/- SEM) of 11.1 +/- .83 piglets per sow. The English-style arc hut design may improve outdoor pig production and increase competitiveness of the intensive, outdoor system. The 25% Meishan genotype has potential for increased pigs weaned per litter that must be considered in light of other features of this genotype such as body composition.     

Impact of rank position on fertility of sows

The investigations were carried out with 484 sows from two farms (farm A: housing the sows in small groups of 8 animals each, farm B with a large group of 100 sows) and a total number of 982 inseminations. The number of agonistic interactions was registered for each sow during 48 h after mixing soon after weaning the piglets at farm A. The individual rank place in the social hierarchy was calculated on the basis of wins and defeats and the sows were divided in high and low ranking sows. At farm B the rank position was estimated on the basis of the daily feeding order at two electronic feeding stations (first half of the sows in the feeding order = high ranking, second half = low ranking). Additionally, the following parameters were recorded for each sow: parity, genotype, farrowing rate and litter size (total and alive born piglets). The analysis showed that sows with a high rank position had a significantly higher farrowing rate (88.8%) compared to group-mates with low rank places (82.8%, p = 0.051) (farm A). Sows with a high rank position reached a significantly higher litter size of total born piglets (12.66, 16.14 piglets per litter respectively) than the low-ranking group-mates (12.13, 14.83 piglets/litter respectively — farms A and B). When mixing sows, the time and the conditions (e.g. group size, space allowance per sow) have to be considered to prevent the negative influence of low rank order on fertility.     

Piglet mortality – A parallel comparison between loose-housed and temporarily confined farrowing sows in the same herd

In literature, piglet mortality is described as a multifactorial complex influenced by factors as litter size, age and health of the sow, farrowing system, management etc. In this study, a parallel comparison was made between two farrowing systems; a temporarily confined (TC) (farrowing – 3 days after) versus a loose sow (L). On average, 0.4 more pigs per litter survived until weaning if the sow was temporarily confined (TC) compared with being loose (L). Cause of death was recorded according to a strict template. Underweight and crushing was the most common causes. For crushing, during 1–3 days after birth, an interaction between sow age and farrowing system was observed, with differences between farrowing systems only for intermediate-aged and older sows (>parity 2). There were no significant differences between systems regarding farrowing duration or number of stillborn pigs, but a significant increase in farrowing problems was recorded for TC-sows.     

Effects of cooled floor pads combined with chilled drinking water on behavior and performance of lactating sows under heat stress

This study was conducted to evaluate whether cooled floor pads combined with chilled drinking water could alleviate negative impacts of heat stress on lactating sows. Thirty sows (Landrace × Yorkshire, Parity = 1 to 6) were housed in individual farrowing stalls in two rooms with temperatures being controlled at 29.4°C (0700–1900 hours) and 23.9°C (1900–0700 hours). Sows in one room (Cool), but not in the other room (Control) were provided cooled floor pads (21–22°C) and chilled drinking water (13–15°C). Behavior of sows (15 sows/treatment) was video recorded during farrowing, and days 1, 3, 7, 14, and 21 after farrowing. Videos were viewed continuously to register the birth time of each piglet, from which total farrowing duration and birth intervals were calculated. The number of drinking bouts and the duration of each drinking bout were registered for each sow through viewing videos continuously for 2 h (1530–1730 hours) each video-recording day. Postures (lying laterally, lying ventrally, sitting, and standing) were recorded by scanning video recordings at 5-min intervals for 24 h each video-recording day, and time budget for each posture was calculated. Rectal temperature and respiration rate were measured for all sows the day before and after farrowing, and then once weekly. Sow and litter performance was recorded. Data were analyzed using the Glimmix procedure of SAS. The cooling treatment did not affect sow behavior or litter performance. Sows in the Cool room had lower rectal temperature (P = 0.03) and lower respiration rate (P < 0.001), consumed more feed (P = 0.03), tended to have reduced weight loss (P = 0.07), and backfat loss (P = 0.07) during lactation than sows in the Control room. As lactation progressed, sows increased drinking frequency (P < 0.001) and time spent lying ventrally (P < 0.0001), standing (P < 0.001), and sitting (P < 0.0001), and decreased time spent lying laterally (P < 0.0001) in both Cool and Control rooms. While cooled floor pads combined with chilled drinking water did not affect sow behavior, they did alleviate heat stress partially, as indicated by decreased rectal temperature, respiration rate, weight, and backfat loss, and increased feed intake in lactating sows.     

Factors affecting piglet mortality in loose farrowing systems on commercial farms

Crating sows in farrowing systems greatly restricts their normal behaviour (e.g. movement, nest-building, leaving the nest site for defecation), which is usually justified by the assumption that piglet mortality is higher with loose-housed sows. Based on experiments showing that this is not the case, farrowing crates were banned in Switzerland in 1997, with a 10-year transitional period. Since then, many farms have introduced loose farrowing systems, enabling an analysis of risk factors for piglet mortality in crateless farrowing systems based on a large sample size. Data from a Swiss sow recording scheme (UFA2000) were analysed using generalised linear mixed-effects models with an underlying Poisson distribution. Average total piglet mortality for the years 2002 and 2003 on 99 farms (N = 12457 litters) with loose farrowing systems amounted to 1.36 liveborn piglets per litter. The number of crushed piglets was 0.64 piglets per litter, whereas the number of piglets that died for other reasons was 0.72 piglets per litter.Herd size, pen size, possibility of confinement of the sow, presence of piglet protection bars and year of data collection did not significantly influence total piglet losses, losses due to crushing and losses due to reasons other than crushing. With greater litter size at birth, significantly more losses occurred due to all reasons (total, crushed, others). Total piglet mortality and losses for reasons other than crushing were significantly higher in older sows. Losses were therefore mainly attributable to sow-related characteristics rather than to the design of the farrowing pen.     

Effects of additional feed during late gestation on reproductive performance of sows: a cooperative study

A cooperative research study involving 1,080 litters was conducted at eight stations to determine the effects of additional feed during the last 23 d of gestation on reproductive performance of sows and on preweaning performance of their pigs. Primiparous and multiparous sows were fed fortified corn- or sorghum-soybean meal diets (14% crude protein). Control sows received 1.82 kg/d from March through November and 2.27 kg/d from December through February. Treated sows were fed an additional 1.36 kg of feed/d from d 90 of gestation to farrowing. Sows were allowed to consume the same diet ad libitum during a 21-d lactation. Additional feed in late gestation resulted in greater (P less than .001) sow weight gain from d 90 to d 110 of gestation (16.8 vs 9.0 kg) and greater (P less than .001) parturition-lactation weight loss (21.3 vs 16.4 kg). Total weight gain from breeding to 21 d of lactation favored sows that received extra feed (27.5 vs 22.7 kg; P less than .001). Sows receiving extra feed had more live pigs at farrowing (10.05 vs 9.71, P = .06) and at 21 d postpartum (8.35 vs 8.06, P = .09), and the pigs were heavier at birth (1.48 vs 1.44 kg, P = .003) and at 21 d (5.37 vs 5.20 kg, P = .006). Lactation feed intake and number of days from weaning to estrus were not affected by treatment. The results indicate that additional feed in late gestation improves reproductive performance in sows. In this study, the cost of an additional 31 kg of feed/sow was more than offset by the value of the additional sow weight gain (approximately 5 kg), the additional .3 of a pig/litter at weaning and the additional 2.6 kg of total litter weaning weight.     

The association between sow and piglet behavior

Sows in modern pig industry are often housed individually in farrowing crates a few days before farrowing until weaning. These farrowing crates limit movements of the sow and therefore also limit them in expressing their behavior. These limitations may lead to distress with the sow and can result in stereotypical behaviors. Because it is possible that the general behavior of the mother sow also influences her piglets, the hypothesis of the present study was that there is an association between the general behavior of sows and the behavior of their piglets. Our results showed that there was indeed an association between the postures and activities of sows and the behavior of their piglets, not only for nursing–suckling behavior. Results also indicated that piglets prefer resting when sows are resting. When sows were standing up, piglets were running around more. Although there were indications that piglets were more at ease when sows were bar biting compared with when they were sham chewing, a specific relationship between sow stereotypical behavior and piglet behavior could not be demonstrated in the present study. Though, it should be taken in mind that relatively low frequencies of stereotypical behaviors were observed. Furthermore, it could be that not only the prevalence of a specific stereotypical behavior is important but also a specific threshold of that specific behavior should be exceeded to induce effects on the suckling piglets. Alternatively piglets could coinduce stereotypical behavior of the mother sow.     

Short or Long Day Light Regimes May Not Affect Reproductive Performance in the Sow

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of short or long day light regimes on the reproductive performance in the sow. The study comprised approximately 1300 sows and their 3400 breedings in three commercial sow pools, in which a batch farrowing of 40 sows was employed. Each batch remained in the farrowing unit for 8 weeks under either a short day (10 h light, 14 h dark) or a long day (14 h light, 10 h dark) light regime. After weaning and transportation to the central unit, all sows were kept under the long day regime until they were moved back to the farrowing unit. Production results for each individual sow were recorded. The effect of the two different light regimes on the farrowing rate (FR) and on the weaning‐to‐oestrous interval was evaluated using logistic and Poisson regression models, respectively. The light regime affected none of the parameters significantly. The FR in June, July and August did, however, drop below that in December, January and February (OR 0.7, p < 0.05). The FR was affected by the sow pool (p < 0.01). Parity two sows exhibited a lower FR (OR 0.5, p = 0.05) and higher incidence of delayed first oestrus (IRR 2.7, p < 0.01) than did older sows. This study indicates that despite an artificial light regime, sows may still react to changes in season. In conclusion, use of simple light regime to obtain complete control over reproductive performance appears to be difficult.     

Influence of thermal environment on sows around farrowing and during the lactation period

Our objective was to investigate the effects of floor heating duration (HEAT: 35°c for 12 or 48 h) after birth of first piglet (BFP) under different room temperatures (ROOM: 15°C, 20°C, 25°C) on sows during farrowing and lactation. The study included 8 to 11 repetitions for each combination of ROOM and HEAT. There were no treatment effects on indicators of birth problems (duration of parturition, interbirth intervals, umbilical cord lactate concentration), BW changes of the sow, and litter size and weight until weaning. Sows at 15°C compared with 20°C and 25°C spent more time nest building (P = 0.015). The feed intake was reduced the first 7 d after farrowing in sows at 25°C (P = 0.014); however, both daily feed intake (P = 0.018) and water consumption (P < 0.001) of these warm sows exceeded that at lower temperatures during the last part of the lactation. Sows at 15°C received more medical treatments until weaning at heat = 48 h only (ROOM and HEAT interaction, P = 0.005). Room temperature influenced prefarrowing water consumption (25°C > 20°C and 15°C; P < 0.017), sow surface temperature (15°C < 20°C < 25°C; P < 0.001), respiration rate (25°C > 20°C > 15°C; P < 0.001), and rectal temperature during the first 12 h after bfp (15°C < 25°C; P = 0.009); additionally, long floor heating duration (HEAT = 48 h) increased the respiration rate by 50% d 1 and 2 after bfp (p < 0.001). The proportion of lying time on the unheated slatted floor increased with room temperature (P < 0.001) and, transiently, also for the heat = 48 h treatment 13 to 48 h after BFP (P < 0.001). The majority of piglets (82% to 95%) were born on the heated solid floor, regardless of room temperature (P = 0.46). Sows spent approximately twice as much time standing and walking at 15°C during 13 to 48 h after BFP at HEAT = 12 h only (ROOM and HEAT interaction; P = 0.002). In conclusion, long-term indicators of reduced sow performance were unaffected by room temperature, probably because the farrowing and lactating sows in the current pen design were able to perform thermoregulatory behavior and successfully adapt to room temperatures between 15°C and 25°C.     

Dietary medium- or long-chain triglycerides improve body condition of lean-genotype sows and increase suckling pig growth

In a field trial conducted on a commercial swine farm, lean-genotype sows (n = 485) were fed diets containing 0 or 10% supplemental fat as either medium-chain triglyceride or choice white grease from d 90 of gestation until weaning (15.5 d). Effects on standard sow and litter production traits were examined together with assessment of sow body condition using live ultrasound. Daily feed intake during lactation was 10% higher in sows consuming diets without added fat (7.2 vs 6.5 kg; P < 0.01); however, lactation ME (23.9 Mcal/d) and digestible lysine (54 g/d) intakes were unaffected (P > 0.10). Sows supplemented with fat were 4 kg heavier on d 109 of gestation (220 vs 224 kg; P < or = 0.01), 1 d after farrowing (210 vs 214 kg; P < or = 0.01), and at weaning (210 vs 214 kg; P < or = 0.01). Expressed as overall gain, this amounted to a 23% increase (0.66 vs 0.86 kg/d; P < or = 0.01) and was accompanied by a 49% increase in backfat (0.82 vs 1.68 mm; P < or = 0.03) from d 90 to farrowing. Changes in sow weight (-0.01 kg/d) and backfat (+4.2 mm) over lactation were minimal and were not affected by fat supplementation (P > or = 0.10). Longissimus muscle area at weaning was slightly greater (44.96 vs 46.2 cm2) in sows consuming fat than in control sows (P < or = 0.05), but changes in longissimus muscle area were not significant from d 90 to weaning (P > or = 0.10). Gestation length, pigs born alive, average birth weight, survival (d 3 to weaning), and days to estrus were not affected by diet (P > 0.10). However, supplemental fat increased pig ADG (192 vs 203 g/d; P < 0.01) and average pig weaning weight (4.3 vs 4.5 kg) at 15.5 d (P < or = 0.02). No differences between the two fat sources were detected. This large-scale study demonstrated that supplemental fat during gestation and lactation effectively improved sow condition and improved suckling pig performance without affecting energy intake during lactation, implying improved efficiency of sow energy utilization.     

Influence of pig substitution on milk yield, litter weights, and milk composition of machine milked sows.

This study was conducted to 1) determine milk yield of sows that were machine milked up to four times daily; 2) determine the effect of pig substitution on milk yield; 3) assess litter weight changes for sows that are milked; and 4) determine milk composition. Eight sows were milked four times daily to d 51 postpartum. Sows either maintained their own litter or had a week-old replacement litter to replace 25-d-old pigs. Individual gland milk yields were obtained on random days throughout lactation, and different diameter and weighted teat cups were rotated so that all glands received all combinations. Composite milk samples were analyzed for fat, protein, and somatic cells. Milk yields peaked at about 19 d postpartum and declined to 45 d postpartum in sows with their own litter, whereas milk yields peaked earlier and had a more dramatic decline after fostering of a younger litter. Litter weights were 17.1 +/- 1.0 kg at farrowing with 13.6 +/- .6 pigs born alive. Final litter weights were 34.4 +/- 11.7 kg for sows with replacement litters and 74.4 +/- 13.5 kg for sows with their own litters, and numbers of pigs weaned were 6.5 +/- 1.3 and 9.7 +/- 1.5, respectively. Milk fat was influenced by route of oxytocin administration (6.53 +/- .12 for i.v. vs 7.21 +/- .19% for i.m. administration; P < .05). Milk fat percentage was highest on d 2 and declined to 13 d postpartum. Milk protein was influenced by time of day of milking (lowest at the fourth milking, 5.57 +/- .11%) and followed a pattern similar to that for milk fat. Milk protein was affected in a linear manner by milk yield, with highest protein associated with lowest milk yields. Somatic cells in milk were influenced by litter replacement (P < .05) and oxytocin administration (P < .01). There was a linear increase in somatic cells from about 8 x 10(6) cells/mL milk at d 2 to more than 12 x 10(6) cells/mL milk at d 51 postpartum. These results show that pig replacement affects the amount of milk obtained. Moreover, milk composition changes throughout lactation. However, milk removal from sows has a severe impact on litter weight gains, and in systems where sow's milk is needed for commercial purposes, pig supplementation is necessary.     

Effect of farrowing duration, parity number and the type of anti-inflammatory drug on postparturient disorders in sows: a clinical study

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of farrowing duration, parity number, and type of anti-inflammatory drug used postpartum on the incidence of postparturient disorders in sows. The duration of farrowing and postparturient disorders were examined in 64 sows at Days 0, 1, 2, and 3 after farrowing. The sows were classified according to parity number (1, 2–4, and 5–7), duration of farrowing (<2, 2–2.9, 3–3.9, and 4–8 h), and the type of anti-inflammatory drugs (flunixin méglumine and dipyrone). The farrowing duration was 178.0?±?73.5 min (2.96 h). The percentage of sows with fever increased from 40 to 100 % when the farrowing duration increased from <2 to 4–8 h. On Day 1 of the postpartum, 93.7 % of primiparous sows had fever, while 52.6 and 47.6 % of sows parity 2–4 and 5–7 had a fever (P?<?0.05). The presence of vaginal discharge on Day 1 of the postpartum was higher in sows of parity 5–7 than sows of parity 2–4 (85.7 and 52.6 %, P?=?0.029). The use of flunixin méglumine after parturition in sows reduced the percentage of sows with a fever from 61.3 to 22.6 % within 2 days (P?=?0.002), while, the percentage of sows with a fever was not decreased in sows treated with dipyrone. It can be concluded that the incidence of postparturient disorders in sows was affected by sow parity, farrowing duration and the type of anti-inflammatory drug used. Sows with a farrowing duration of ≥4 h were at a high risk of having fever at Day 1 after parturition.