Root exudate effects on the bacterial communities, CO2 evolution, nitrogen transformations and ATP content of rhizosphere and bulk soils

The ATP content, soil respiration, bacterial community composition, and gross N mineralization and immobilization rates were monitored under laboratory condition at 25 °C for 28 d in a model system where low molecular weight root exudates (glucose and oxalic acid) were released by a filter placed on the surface of a forest soil also treated with ¹⁵N, so as to simulate rhizosphere conditions. Periodically, the soil was sampled from two layers, 0-2 and 6-14 mm below the filter's surface, which were indicated as rhizosphere and bulk soils, respectively. The isotope dilution technique was used to determine the effect of these low molecular weight organic compounds (LMWOCs) on gross N mineralization and immobilization rates. From 0 to 3 d both glucose and oxalic acid amended soils showed a rapid evolution of CO₂, more pronunced in the latter treatment together with a decrease in the amount of mineral N of the rhizosphere soil, probably due to N immobilization. Nevertheless, these changes were accompanied by a very small increase in the net ATP content probably because the low C application rate stimulated microbial activity but microbial growth only slightly. A positive ‘priming effect’ probably developed in the oxalic acid amended soil but not in the glucose amended soil. Gross N mineralization and immobilization rates were only observed in the rhizosphere soil, probably due to the greater C and N concentrations and microbial activity, and were a little higher in both amended soils than in the control soil, only between 1 and 7 d. Both glucose and oxalic acid influenced the bacterial communities of the rhizosphere soil, as new bands in the DGGE profiles appeared at 3 and 7 d. Glucose induced lower changes in the bacterial community than oxalic acid, presumably because the former stimulated a larger proportion of soil microorganisms whereas the latter was decomposed by specialized microorganisms. Peaks of net daily soil respiration and net ATP content and the appearence of new dominant bacterial populations were shifted in time, probably because there was less ATP synthesis and DGGE patterns changed after complete substrate mineralization.     

Use of an artificial root to examine the influence of 8-hydroxyquinoline on soil microbial activity and bacterial community structure

Invasive plant species have been shown to alter the microbial community composition of the soils they invade and it is suggested that this below-ground perturbation of potential pathogens, decomposers or symbionts may feedback positively to allow invasive success. Whether these perturbations are mediated through specific components of root exudation are not understood. We focussed on 8-hydroxyquinoline, a putative allelochemical of Centaurea diffusa (diffuse knapweed) and used an artificial root system to differentiate the effects of 8-hydroxyquinoline against a background of total rhizodeposition as mimicked through supply of a synthetic exudate solution. In soil proximal (0-10 cm) to the artificial root, synthetic exudates had a highly significant (P < 0.001) influence on dehydrogenase, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis and urease activity. In addition, 8-hydroxyquinoline was significant (p = 0.003) as a main effect on dehydrogenase activity and interacted with synthetic exudates to affect urease activity (p = 0.09). Hierarchical cluster analysis of 16S rDNA-based DGGE band patterns also identified a primary affect of synthetic exudates and a secondary affect of 8-hydroxyquinoline on bacterial community structure. Thus, we show that the artificial rhizosphere produced by the synthetic exudates was the predominant effect, but, that the influence of the 8-hydroxyquinoline signal on the activity and structure of soil microbial communities could also be detected.     

Effect of root mucilage and modelled root exudates on soil structure

Plant roots release in the rhizosphere diverse organic materials which may have different effects on soil structure. We have evaluated the effect of natural and modelled root‐released materials on soil aggregates and the biodegradation of carbon from roots in the soil. The effects of root mucilage from maize and of a modelled soluble exudate were compared with those of simple compounds (glucose, polygalacturonic acid). For all treatments, soil was amended with 2 g C kg^?1 soil and incubated for 30 days at 25°C. The biodegradation of mucilage was similar to that of polygalacturonic acid, and slower than the decomposition of modelled exudates and glucose. Addition of all substrates increased the stability of aggregates, but the duration of this effect depended on the chemical nature of the material. Compared with the control, the proportion of stable aggregates after 30 days of incubation was multiplied by 3.8 for root mucilage, by 4.2 for modelled soluble exudates, by 2.5 for polygalacturonic acid and by 2.0 for glucose. The different fractions of root exudates in the rhizosphere evidently affected the aggregate stability.     

Profiling of PLFA: Implications for nonlinear spatial gradient of PCP degradation in the vicinity of Lolium perenne L. roots

An investigation was conducted using phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) profiles to follow the spatial response of the microbial community at the millimeter scale with the purpose of illustrating the mechanism of nonlinear spatial dependence of PCP degradation on the distance from the root surface in the rhizosphere of Lolium perenne L. A laminar rhizobox was designed to allow the harvest of intact layers of root compartment, near-(1, 2, 3, 4, 5 mm) and far-(>5 mm) rhizosphere soil from root surfaces without the removal of the root material itself. Lolium perenne L. was grown in environmental chambers for 53 days with soil spiked with 8.7 and 18 mg kg⁻¹ PCP. PLFA profiles were found to be affected by the distance from the rhizosphere, indicating a distance-dependent selective enrichment of competent species that may be responsible for efficient PCP degradation. In particular, the five fatty acids 16:1ω5, 16:0, i17:0, a17:0 and 10Me18:0 emerged as microbiological biomarkers that may be used for assessing phytoremediation processes of PCP in soil. Their synergistic effects were shown to be most responsive to the nonlinear spatial patterns of PCP degradation in the vicinity of Lolium perenne L. roots. The results suggest that root exudates induced modifications of microbial communities in the PCP contaminated rhizosphere and spatially modified the dominant species within these communities, resulting in the nonlinear PCP degradation pattern.     

Corn (Zea mays L.) root exudates and their impact on 14C-pyrene mineralization

Corn (Zea mays L.) root exudates were flushed from a hydrophobic system that allowed the aseptic separation of soluble exudates from the intact plant root. Plants were grown for 90 d, during which time root exudates flowed from the hydroponic setup directly onto columns containing soil previously contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Mineralization of the PAH, pyrene, was then determined in soil removed from columns. In addition, exudated samples were directly taken from the hydroponic system for estimation of total organic carbon release and for use in microbial studies. In soil from columns that received root exudates from a planted (versus an unplanted) apparatus, there was a significant increase in ¹⁴C-pyrene mineralization. The extent of stimulation was comparable to that measured in rhizosphere soil isolated from plants growing in the same soil. Soil from columns that received solution from apparatuses that were not planted showed no stimulation of ¹⁴C-pyrene mineralization. Separate studies confirmed that some members of the soil microbial community were able to utilize these soluble plant compounds. This indicates that root exudates have the potential to increase the degradation of xenobiotics by the growth of soil microorganisms. Separating the chemical impact of the root exudates from any root surface phenomena is an important step in isolating a potential mechanism of phytoremediation. Many studies have speculated on the involvement of root exudates in rhizosphere degradation of organic contaminants, but very few studies go beyond adding simple carbon substrates in short pulses. This study employed a system that exposed the microbial community to real root exudates in the concentrations and over a time period that mimicked actual conditions.     

Facilitation of pentachlorophenol degradation in the rhizosphere of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)

The phytoremediation of xenobiotics depends upon plant-microbe interactions in the rhizosphere, but the extent and intensity of these effects are currently unknown. To investigate rhizosphere effects on the biodegradation of xenobiotics, a glasshouse experiment was conducted using a specially designed rhizobox where ryegrass seedlings were grown for 53 days in a soil spiked with pentachlorophenol (PCP) at concentrations of 8.7±0.5 and 18±0.5 mg kg⁻¹ soil. The soil in the rhizobox was divided into six separate compartments at various distances from the root surface. Changes in PCP concentrations with increasing distance from the root compartment of the rhizobox were then assessed. The largest and most rapid loss of PCP in planted soil was at 3 mm from the root zone where total PCP decreased to 0.20 and 0.65 mg kg⁻¹, respectively with the two PCP treatments. The degradation gradient followed the order: near-rhizosphere>root compartment>far-rhizosphere soil zones for both concentrations where ryegrass was grown. In contrast, there was no difference in PCP concentration with distance in the unplanted soil. The increases in both soil microbial biomass carbon and the activities of soil urease and phosphatase were accompanied by the enhanced degradation of PCP, which was higher in the near-rhizosphere than far-rhizosphere soil. The results suggest that the effect of root proximity is important in the degradation of xenobiotics such as PCP in soil.     

Additions of maize root mucilage to soil changed the structure of the bacterial community

The organic compounds released from roots (rhizodeposits) stimulate the growth of the rhizosphere microbial community. They may be responsible for the differences in the structure of the microbial communities commonly observed between the rhizosphere and the bulk soil. Rhizodeposits consists of a broad range of compounds including root mucilage. The aim of this study was to investigate if additions of maize root mucilage, at a rate of 70 μg C g⁻¹ day⁻¹ for 15 days, to an agricultural soil could affect the structure of the bacterial community. Mucilage additions moderately increased microbial C (+23% increase relative to control), which suggests that the turnover rate of microorganisms consuming this substrate was high. Consistent with this, the number of cultivable bacteria was enhanced by +450%. Catabolic (Biolog^® GN2) and 16S-23S intergenic spacer fingerprints exhibited significant differences between control and mucilage treatments. These data indicate that mucilage can affect both the metabolic and genetic structure of the bacterial community as shown by a greater catabolic potential for carbohydrates. We concluded that mucilage is likely to significantly contribute to differences in the structure of the bacterial communities present in the rhizosphere compared to the bulk soil.     

Substrate quality affects microbial‐ and enzyme activities in rooted soil

The rhizosphere reflects a sphere of high substrate input by means of rhizodeposits. Active microorganisms and extracellular enzymes are known to be responsible for substrate utilization in soil, especially in rooted soil. We tested for microbial‐ and enzyme activities in arable soil, in order to investigate the effects of continuous input of easily available organics (e.g., root‐exudates) to the microbial community. In a field experiment with maize, rooted and root‐free soil were analyzed and rhizosphere processes were linked to microbial activity indicators such as specific microbial growth rates and kinetics of six hydrolytic extracellular enzymes: β‐glucosidase, β‐cellobiohydrolase, β‐xylosidase, acid phosphatase, leucine‐ and tyrosine‐aminopeptidase. Higher potential activities of leucine‐aminopeptidase (2‐fold) for rooted vs. root‐free soil suggested increased costs of enzyme production, which retarded the specific microbial growth rates. Total microbial biomass determined by the substrate‐induced respiration technique and dsDNA extraction method was 23% and 42% higher in the rooted surface‐layer (0–10 cm) compared to the root‐free soil, respectively. For the rooted soil, potential enzyme activities of β‐glucosidase were reduced by 23% and acid phosphatase by 25%, and increased by 300% for β‐cellobiohydrolase at 10–20 cm depth compared to the surface‐layer. The actively growing microbial biomass increased by the 17‐fold in rooted soil in the 10–20 cm layer compared to the upper 10 cm. Despite the specific microbial growth rates showing no changes in the presence of roots, these rates decreased by 42% at 10–20 cm depth compared to the surface‐layer. This suggests the dominance in abundances of highly active but slower growing microbes with depth, reflecting also their slower turnover. Shifts in microbial growth strategy, upregulation of enzyme production and increased microbial respiration indicate strong root effects in maize planted soil.     

Impact of artificial root exudates on the bacterial community structure in bulk soil and maize rhizosphere

Bacterial densities, metabolic signatures and genetic structures were evaluated to measure the impact of soil enrichment of soluble organic carbon on the bacterial community structures. The exudates chosen were detected in natural maize exudates (glucose, fructose, saccharose, citric acid, lactic acid, succinic acid, alanine, serine and glutamic acid) and were used at a rate of 100 μg C g⁻¹ day⁻¹ for 14 days. Moreover two synthetic solutions with distinct carbon/nitrogen ratios (20.5 and 40.1), obtained by varying carboxylic and amino acids concentrations, were compared in order to evaluate the potential role of organic N availability. The in vitro experiment consisted of applying exudate solutions to bulk soil. In the case of the control, only distilled water was added. Both solutions significantly increased bacterial densities and modified the oxidation pattern of Biolog® GN2 plates with no effect of the C/N ratio on these two parameters. Genetic structure, measured by means of ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (RISA), was also consistently modified by the organic amendments. N availability levels led to distinct genetic structures. In a second experiment, one of the previous exudate solutions (C/N 20.5) was applied to 15-day-old maize plants to determine the structural influence of exudates on the rhizosphere microbial community (in situ experiment). Bacterial densities were significantly increased, but to a lesser extent than had been found in the in vitro experiment. Metabolic potentials and RISA profiles were also significantly modified by the organic enrichment.     

Does the depletion of pentachlorophenol in root–soil interface follow a simple linear dependence on the distance to root surfaces?

To understand root–soil–microbe interactions in rhizo-depletion of xenobiotics, we conducted a glasshouse study using specially designed laminar rhizoboxes which allow intact layers of near- (1–5 mm) and far- (>5 mm) rhizosphere soil to be harvested separately from root surfaces without the removal of the root material itself. Plant (Lolium perenne L.) seedlings were grown for 90 days in a soil treated with PCP at 20 and 50 mg kg⁻¹. Changes in PCP depletion, soil microbial biomass and community structure (as indicated by phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) profiles) with increasing distance from the root surfaces were then assessed after harvesting. Surprisingly, depletion of PCP in the planted rhizoboxes exhibited a nonlinear dependence on the distance to root surfaces, with the most rapid loss in the 2 or 3 mm near-rhizosphere layers, contrasting to the well-known linear gradient of root exudates and mineral nutrients etc. (generally, the extent gradually decreased with increasing distance from the root surface). Soil microbial biomass carbon, however, decreased linearly as expected with increasing distance from the roots. The microbial community structures as indicated by PLFA profiles showed distance-dependent selective enrichment of competent species that may be responsible for efficient PCP depletion. The results suggest that root exudates induced modifications of microbial communities in the PCP contaminated rhizosphere and spatially modified the dominant species within these communities, resulting in the nonlinear PCP depletion pattern.     

Changes of microbial properties in (near-) rhizosphere soils after phytoextraction by Sedum alfredii H: A rhizobox approach with an artificial Cd-contaminated soil

The ultimate goal of soil remediation is to restore soil health. Soil microbial parameters are considered to be effective indicators of soil health. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of phytoextraction on microbial properties through the measurement of soil microbial biomass carbon, soil basal respiration and enzyme activities. For this purpose, a pre-stratified rhizobox experiment was conducted with the Cd hyperaccumulator Sedum alfredii H. for phytoextraction Cd from an artificial contaminated soil (15.81 mg kg⁻¹) under greenhouse conditions. The plant and soil samples were collected after growing the plant for three and six months with three replications. The results indicated that the ecotype of S. alfredii H. originating from an ancient silver mining site was a Cd-hyperaccumulator as it showed high tolerance to Cd stress, the shoot Cd concentration were as high as 922.6 mg kg⁻¹ and 581.9 mg kg⁻¹ at the two samplings, and it also showed high BF (58.4 and 36.8 after 3 and 6 months growth), and TF (5.8 and 5.1 after 3 and 6 months growth). The amounts of Cd accumulated in the shoots of S. alfredii reached to an average of 1206 μg plant⁻¹ after 6 months growth. Basal respiration, invertase and acid phosphatase activities of the rhizosphere soil separated by the shaking method were significantly higher (P < 0.01) than that of the near-rhizosphere soil and the unplanted soil after 3 months growth, so were microbial biomass carbon, urease, invertase and acid phosphatase activities of the rhizosphere soil after 6 months growth. Acid phosphatase activity of the 0–2 mm sub-layer rhizosphere soil collected by the pre-stratified method after 3 months growth was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of other sub-layer rhizosphere soils and bulk soil, and so were microbial biomass carbon, basal respiration, urease, invertase and acid phosphatase activities of the 0–2 mm sub-layer rhizosphere soil after 6 months growth. It was concluded that phytoextraction by S. alfredii could improve soil microbial properties, especially in rhizosphere, and this plant poses a great potential for the remediation of Cd contaminated soil.     

Microbial activity and hydrolase synthesis in long-term Cd-contaminated soils

Alkaline and acid phosphomonoesterase, β-glucosidase, arylsulfatase, protease and urease activities, CO₂-C evolution and ATP content were monitored in long-term Cd-contaminated (0-40 mg Cd kg⁻¹ dry weight soil) sandy soils, kept under maize or ‘set aside’ regimes, amended with plant residues. The organic matter input increased soil respiration, ATP contents and hydrolase activities in all soils. However, the Cd-contaminated soils had significantly higher metabolic quotients (qCO₂), as calculated by the CO₂-to-ATP ratio, and significantly lower hydrolase activities and hydrolase activity-to-ATP ratios for alkaline phosphomonoesterase, arylsulfatase and protease activities, compared with the respective uncontaminated soils. The ratios between acid phosphomonoesterase, β-glucosidase and urease activities and ATP were unaffected. A significantly higher qCO₂/μ ratio, an expression of maintenance energy, was observed in most of the contaminated soils, indicating that more energy was required for microbial synthesis in the presence of high Cd concentrations. It was concluded that exposure to high Cd concentrations led to a less efficient metabolism, which was responsible for lower enzyme activity and synthesis and lower hydrolase activity-to-ATP ratios observed in these Cd-contaminated soils.     

2-Phenylethylisothiocyanate concentration and microbial community composition in the rhizosphere of canola

Canola crops have been shown to inhibit soil-borne pathogens in following crops. This effect is mainly attributed to the release of low molecular S-containing compounds, such as isothiocyanates, during microbial degradation of the crop residues. We have assessed the effect of low concentrations of phenylethylisothiocyanate (PEITC) on soil microbial communities as well as its rate of degradation in soil and determined the concentration of PEITC and the microbial community structure in the rhizosphere of canola. PEITC was degraded within 96 h by soil microorganisms. PEITC added to the soil daily for 5 d affected both bacterial and eukaryotic community structure, determined by PCR-DGGE. Community structures of bacteria and eukaryotes changed at PEITC concentrations between 1300 and 3790 pmol g⁻¹ soil fresh weight but was unaffected at lower concentrations. The PEITC concentration in the rhizosphere of living canola roots was greater in first order laterals than in second order laterals. The maximal PEITC concentration detected in the rhizosphere was 1827 pmol g⁻¹. Redundancy analysis of the DGGE banding patterns indicated a significant correlation between the PEITC concentration in the rhizosphere and the community structure of the active fraction of eukaryotes and bacteria in the rhizosphere. Other important factors influencing the microbial community structure were soil moisture and plant dry matter. It is concluded that canola may affect the soil microbial community structure not only after incorporation of canola residues but also during active growth of the plants.     

Pruned tea bushes secrete more root exudates to influence microbiological properties in soil

Pruning is adopted at 3–4 years interval as an agronomic practice during tea cultivation. It was hypothesized that biomass loss during pruning will imply stress on tea bushes. The aim of this study was to quantify changes in different parameters (labile organic carbon fractions, phosphatase activity, microbial biomass and microbial respiration) in tea rhizosphere due to pruning by collecting soil samples from the rhizosphere of ten of each pruned and un-pruned tea bushes. Hot-water extractable and dissolved organic C contents in rhizosphere soil of pruned tea were significantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher than those in the soil of un-pruned tea bushes. Analysis of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) revealed that the rhizosphere of pruned tea plants had higher population of Gram (+) and Gram (-) bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and lower denitrifying bacterial population as compared to un-pruned tea plants. Activity of acid phosphatase enzyme in soil was also increased due to pruning. A separate study revealed that de-centering may induce production of up to 50% more labile organic carbon compounds by young tea as compared to un-pruned plants. Therefore, it could be concluded that pruned tea bushes secrete more root exudates to influence microbiological and biochemical properties in rhizosphere.     

菊芋根系分泌物改良滨海盐土的微生物机制

[目的] 探究菊芋在滨海盐土改良过程中的作用机制,分析菊芋和碱蓬根系分泌物的组分差异,明确土壤微生态环境的变化规律,进一步为盐土改良提供理论依据。[方法] 以种植菊芋和自然碱蓬植被为样地,对菊芋和碱蓬的根系分泌物进行对比分析,研究在根系分泌物作用下土壤微生物数量,微生物量碳氮,微生物群落结构以及土壤酶活性的变化,从而系统地阐明根系分泌物介导下盐土改良的微生物机制。[结果] 菊芋根际土壤中含有果糖（2.343×10^-3 g/kg）、葡萄糖（4.235×10^-3 g/kg）、蔗糖（2.670×10^-3 g/kg）,分别是碱蓬根际土壤的9.28,1.52和2.43倍。而菊芋根际与非根际中的果糖含量存在显著性差异（p<0.05）,其根际中含量为非根际的12.02倍。菊芋土壤还含有低聚果糖（蔗果三糖、蔗果四糖和蔗果五糖）,而碱蓬土壤中未检测出低聚果糖。除糖类外,菊芋根系分泌物还含有烷烃、酚、醛、酯、有机酸、醇、酮、酰胺,其组分较碱蓬土壤更为复杂且某些组分为菊芋特有〔1-氯—十八烷、正十六烷酸、2-甲基-Z-4-十四碳烯、十二酮、（Z）-9-十八碳酰胺、苯丙酸十六烷基酯等〕。功能性根系分泌物（如低聚果糖、果糖、十六烷、十八烷酸等）为根际微生物提供碳源、氮源和营养元素的同时,使菊芋根际土壤中微生物数量显著增加（p<0.05）,土壤微生物量碳、氮显著高于碱蓬土壤（p<0.05）,其值分别是碱蓬土壤的1.95和1.6倍,且菊芋根际的微生物量碳、氮约为非根际的1.69和1.50倍,优势菌群（变形菌门、放线菌门、绿弯菌门、酸杆菌门）所占比重达到90%,土壤有益菌群（Actinobacteria和Acidobacteria）的相对丰度显著增加（p<0.05）,土壤生物活性提升。此外,菊芋根际特有的分泌物（十六烷、烯醛等）,抑制了病原菌的生长,优化了微生物群落结构。除过氧化氢酶外,土壤脲酶、蔗糖酶和碱性磷酸活性显著提高（p<0.05）,其活性分别是碱蓬土壤的1.83,1.88和3.30倍。[结论] 种植菊芋后,通过根际分泌物介导,改善土壤微生物群落结构与功能,增加土壤酶活性,使土壤生物活力得以整体提升,与原生植被碱蓬相比,降低了土壤含盐量,起到了改良盐土的作用。     

不同品种小麦与蚕豆间作对蚕豆枯萎病发生、根系分泌物和根际微生物群落功能多样性的影响

通过田间小区试验和盆栽试验,研究了3个不同品种小麦［云麦42（YM42）,云麦47（YM47）和绵阳29（MY29）］与蚕豆间作对蚕豆枯萎病发生、 根系分泌物和根际微生物群落功能多样性的影响。结果表明,云麦42与蚕豆间作处理（YM42//B）和云麦47与蚕豆间作处理（YM47//B）使蚕豆枯萎病病情指数分别降低47.6%和33.3%,而绵阳29与蚕豆间作处理（MY29//B）对蚕豆枯萎病病情指数无显著影响。与蚕豆单作相比,YM42//B和YM47//B处理显著增加了根系分泌物中有机酸的含量,显著降低了根系分泌物中可溶性总糖和游离氨基酸含量; 显著提高了蚕豆根际微生物对碳源的利用强度,明显改变了蚕豆根际微生物群落结构,并且YM42//B处理的影响大于YM47//B; 而MY29//B处理对碳源利用强度、 根际微生物群落结构和根系分泌物中有机酸、 可溶性总糖和游离氨基酸含量均无显著影响。 YM42//B处理根际微生物利用碳源的种类比YM47//B处理多,同时YM42//B和YM47//B处理利用的糖类、 氨基酸类和羧酸类碳源种类完全不同。表明云麦42和云麦47与蚕豆间作通过增加有机酸含量,从而提高根际微生物活性和多样性,促进了根际微生物利用更多的碳源,同时云麦42和云麦47与蚕豆间作抑制了氨基酸和总糖的分泌,而最终控制了蚕豆枯萎病的发生。表明不同品种小麦与蚕豆间作系统根系分泌物-根际微生物的互作是影响蚕豆枯萎病抗性的重要原因。小麦与蚕豆间作控病效果受小麦品种的影响,以云麦42与蚕豆间作效果最好,其次为云麦47与蚕豆间作,而绵阳29与蚕豆间作无显著控病效果。     

根剪对冬枣根际土理化性状及生物学特性的影响

以6年生的冬枣(Zizyphusjujuba Mill.)为试材,分别在行间两侧距树干3倍、5倍和7倍胸径距离处对其进行根剪处理,研究了根剪对冬枣根际土理化性状及生物学特性的影响.结果表明:与对照相比,3倍胸径距离根剪提高了根际土的有效N,P,K含量和pH值以及农药残留的含量;减少了根际土中细菌和真菌的数量,处理间差异达到显著水平,而对放线菌数量则无明显影响;3倍胸径距离根剪抑制了根际土的过氧化氢酶、蔗糖酶、磷酸酶及脲酶活性;降低了有机质含量及根分泌物中氮基酸总量、有机酸总量和总糖含量.与3倍胸径距离根剪相比.5倍胸径距离根剪后根际土中的有效N,P,K含量、有机质含量、酶活性、根分泌物、微生物数量均有所增加,pH值以及农药残留量则有所降低.7倍胸径距离根剪,根际土中的各项指标与对照相比无明显差异.综合分析认为,3倍胸径距离根剪对根际土理化性状及生物学特性有较大的影响.     

Effects of glyphosate on rhizosphere soil microbial communities under two different plant compositions by cultivation-dependent and -independent methodologies

We studied, under two different plant compositions, the short-term effects of glyphosate on rhizosphere soil microbial communities through the utilization of cultivation-dependent and -independent techniques. A short-term pot study was carried out using factorial treatments that included two different compositions of forage plant species (triticale versus a mixture of triticale and pea) and two concentrations of glyphosate (50 and 500 mg active ingredient kg⁻¹ soil, as a commercial formulation, Roundup Plus) arranged in a completely randomized design experiment with four replicates. Control plants (no glyphosate added) were clipped in an attempt to compare two methods of weed control (manual = clipping; chemical = herbicide treatment). Rhizosphere soil was sampled 15 and 30 days after glyphosate treatment and the following soil components were determined: potentially mineralizable nitrogen, ammonium content, community-level physiological profiles using Biolog Ecoplates™, DNA microbial biomass and genotype diversity by means of PCR-DGGE. Fifteen days after herbicide treatment, a glyphosate-induced stimulation of the activity and functional diversity of the cultivable portion of the heterotrophic soil microbial community was observed, most likely due to glyphosate acting as an available source of C, N and P. On the other hand, 30 days after herbicide treatment, both the activity and diversity of the rhizosphere soil microbial communities showed an inconsistent response to glyphosate addition. Apart from its intended effect on plants, glyphosate had non-target effects on the rhizosphere soil microbial community which were, interestingly, more enhanced in triticale than in “triticale + pea” pots. Biolog™ was more sensitive than PCR-DGGE to detect changes in soil microbial communities induced by glyphosate and plant composition.     

Methods of collection of plant root exudates in relation to plant metabolism and purpose: A review

The aim of this work is to review the current knowledge on the effects of plant metabolism (C₃, C₄, and CAM) on root exudation and on the methods of exudate collection as well as the use of such exudates for analyses, testing of microbial response, degradation of pollutants, enzymatic activities, and occurrence of allelochemicals. We examine the advantages and disadvantages of each method as related to the downstream use of the exudates. The use of continuous percolation of solid cultivation medium with adjustment of nutrient‐solution strength appears to be a promising methodology for the determination of root exudation rates and qualitative composition of exuded compounds. The method mimics rhizosphere conditions, minimizing the artificial accumulation of compounds, alteration of plasma‐membrane permeability, ATPase activity, and the impacts of inhibitors or stimulators of root enzymes. Of particular significance is the fact that the adjustment of strength of nutrient solution and percolation enables universal and also long‐term use of the method, allowing high exudation yield by minimizing influx and maximizing efflux rates of exuded compounds at high nutrient‐solution strength. Furthermore, it facilitates assessment of the effect on soil microbial populations and their ability to degrade pollutants. Enzymatic activities can be assessed when a low strength of nutrient solution is used, with percolation of the exudates directly into tested soils. Composition of root exudates, regulation of root enzymes, and plant response to nutrient deficiency can be assessed by measuring net efflux or influx rates. The impact of heavy metals and other type of mechanical, chemical, and biological stresses differs according to the type of plant metabolism. This has significant consequences on transformations in plant communities, both structurally and functionally, and impacts upon crop nutrition, with respect to global climate change, and the use of plants for phytoremediation purposes. Understanding the effects of different types of plant metabolism on root exudation with respect to genetic regulation of synthetic pathways through root enzymes and transport systems presents an important direction for future research.     

Microbial biomass, enzyme and mineralization activity in relation to soil organic C, N and P turnover influenced by acid metal stress

This study focused on the potential of using soil microbial biomass, enzyme and mineralization activities involved in organic C, N and P turnover, to evaluate the quality of a subtropical agricultural soil affected by long-term acid metal stress. Fractions of C, N and P involved in soil organic matter, microbial biomass and mineralization processes were estimated. Total enzyme activity (FDA) and eight hydrolase activities (xylanase, amylase, β-glucosidase, invertase, N-acteyl-glucosaminidase, urease, alkaline and acid phosphatases) in different decomposition stages of organic C, N and P were selected to characterize the soil functional diversity. These biological datasets were compared with soil metal variables (total contents and free and ligand-complexed ions of Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Al and Mn), using principal component analyses, co-inertia and discriminant analyses. The multiple statistics indicate that the metal variables were significantly related with not only general biological factors, but also respective datasets of biomass, enzyme activities and mineralization rates (all P < 0.001). In general, metal variables were inversely related to parameters and indices of microbial biomass C, N and P, FDA and C-related polysaccharidase and heterosidase activities, and P mineralization. As comparison, metal variables exhibited positive relationships with parameters and indices of N-related N-acteyl-glucosaminidase, urease, ammonification, total N mineralization and metabolic quotient, compared with inhibited nitrification. Specifically, free and complexed metal cations showed higher bioavailability than total contents in most cases. Cu, Pb, Al and Mn had different ecotoxicological impacts than Cd and Zn did. Stepwise regression models demonstrated that metal variables are key stress factors, but most of them excluded soil pH. Furthermore, spatial distribution in land uses and of sampling sites clearly separated the soil samples in these models (P < 0.001). We conclude that such a statistical analysis of microbiological and biochemical indices can provide a reliable and comprehensive indication of changes in soil quality and organic nutrient cycling, after exposure to long-term acid metal stress.