Adoption of nutrient management techniques to reduce hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico

Data were collected from 1011 land owner-operators within three watersheds located in the North Central Region of the USA to examine use of selected water protection practices. A theoretical model developed from selected components of the traditional diffusion paradigm and the farm structure model was used to predict adoption and use of conservation practices at the farm level within the study watersheds. Study findings revealed that factors commonly purported to be highly correlated with adoption of conservation production systems were not useful for predicting use of conservation production practices assessed. The production practices examined in the study were percent of cultivated fields surrounded by grass filter strips, percent of waterways in cultivated fields protected by grass, use of banded fertilizer, use of side dressing of fertilizer, and use of nitrification inhibitor. Study findings revealed that the theoretical model developed to guide the study was relatively ineffective for predicting adoption of the conservation practices assessed in the study. None of the statistical models developed from analysis of study data explained more than nine percent of the variance in any of the conservation practices assessed. Research findings suggest that existing conservation programs are no longer useful policy instruments for motivating land owner-operators to adopt and use production systems designed to reduce agricultural pollution of waterways.     

Policies to support economic and environmental goals at farm and regional scales: Outcomes for rice farmers in Southern India depend on their resource endowment

Improving water use and nitrogen efficiencies is of overall importance to society at large - to conserve scarce water resources and prevent environmental pollution. Efficient cultivation practices for rice which had no yield penalty were not adopted by farmers because of the open access to water free of charge. Well-chosen combinations of policy measures are thus needed to stimulate adoption of new cultivation practices. We developed a multi-objective linear programming (MGLP) model to explore the impact of: (i) modified rice cultivation including water-saving irrigation on farm profit; (ii) water pricing and water quota government policies on adoption of modified rice cultivation by farmers; (iii) a combination of (i) and (ii) to achieve the objectives of both farmers and society at large, and (iv) to study the trade-offs between income, water and nitrogen use. The analysis was carried out on four rice-based farm types for the state of Tamil Nadu, South India. Model results showed that observed farm profit of all four farm types could be increased using current practices simply by optimizing land use for specific crops. Adoption of modified rice cultivation further increased farm profit. Water-saving practices were selected only when water pricing was introduced. Farm profits were reduced even at low water prices but were compensated by farmers through adoption of modified rice cultivation. The combination of policies that stimulate adoption of modified rice cultivation was effective in achieving both increased farm income and water savings. The required water prices differed across farm types and seasons and impacted poor resource-endowed farmers the most. Providing water quotas could protect the poor resource-endowed farmers. The model helped to identify the optimal water price and water quota for each farm type to achieve both the objectives of farmers and society at large. Opportunities for reducing water use and avoiding environmental pollution at acceptable profits are available for all farm types, but need to be tailored to the farmers’ resource endowments.     

Farm-level adoption of soil and water conservation techniques in northern Burkina Faso

Using a Probit regression model, this study uses data from 230 small farm households in northern Burkina Faso to identify and analyse the determinants for the adoption of two soil and water conservation techniques, the “zaï” and the stone strip. The “zaï” is a traditional technique for restoring degraded soils by creating a micro-environment favourable for crops by digging and sowing in holes in which manure or compost has already been deposited. In the stone strips, stones are arranged perpendicular to the slope of the land in order to slow down water flow, encourage water infiltration and increase the sedimentation of the materials reconstituting soil.The Results indicate that the most significant variables for the adoption of both of these conservation adoption are training and small ruminants holding. Variables such as education and perception of soil degradation are determinants only for the adoption of zaï technique. Membership in a farmer's association and area cultivated are positively related only in the case of the stone strips. Although stone strips is a technique suitable for larger areas, the results show that the perception of soil degradation is not positively correlated with this technique. These findings suggest, therefore, that support services for rural development should focus their intervention on making farmers convinced of the problem of soil degradation before training them on soil conservation practices.     

The adoption of improved irrigation technology and management practices—A study of two irrigation districts in Alberta, Canada

Irrigation is by far the largest consumer of water in Alberta. The government is therefore dependent on this sector to achieve water savings for reallocating water to other sectors. Hence, a major objective of a recent government strategy is to see an increase in water efficiency and productivity of 30%. A survey of two irrigation districts was undertaken to determine the measures irrigators have taken and plan to take in the future to improve irrigation technologies and management practices to enhance water use efficiency and which factors facilitate or impede the adoption of such measures. As anticipated, the adoption rate varied between the two districts as a result of differences in production characteristics. The major drivers of adoption were to ensure security of water supply during drought, to increase quantity and quality of crops, and to save cost, while the major impediments were financial constraints and physical farm conditions. It seems that most feasible technological improvements have been implemented and considerable financial improvements or subsidies will be necessary to encourage a significant increase in adoption. There seems to be considerable scope for improvement through the adoption of better management practices. Considering that farmers in the two irrigation districts also have modest plans to adopt improved management practices, promotion and education campaigns that encourage new practices that involve minimal cash outlays might yield the greatest water savings in the future.     

Economic evaluation of current and alternative dual-purpose cattle systems for smallholder farms in the central Peruvian highlands

In four communities in the Peruvian Andes, 56 farmers were interviewed every three months over a period of one year. Information linked to milk and cattle production such as activities, inputs (labour, means of production, capital) and outputs (milk, cheese, animals) were recorded using a closed-ended questionnaire. The communities were divided into two groups with low (LC) and high (HC) level of dependence on income from milk and animal sales. The survey results showed that cattle production on the LC farms was based on less land and a smaller herd (3.32 ha/farm, 1.06 lactating cows) than on HC farms (10.28 ha/farm, 4.19 lactating cows). The data from the survey and the results of the nutritional analyses of 74 feed samples were introduced into a model that applied linear programming techniques in order to estimate the farm household income under the current production systems and evaluate the economic impact of improved forage varieties for hay production. Furthermore, the economic viability of other changes in fodder and herd management was tested. Both groups were characterised by a dual-purpose system generating a gross income from the sale of both, milk and live animals in the amount of -21 (LC) and +1057 US$/farm and year (HC). Due to higher production costs for forages and better access to markets, LC communities were characterised by an integrated crop–livestock system whereas in the HC group income was mainly based on livestock. Introduction of improved and fertilized barley for hay production, was estimated to increase the annual farm income to 127 and 1257 US$ for LC and HC, respectively. This increase was accompanied by an increment of the animal number. Maintaining the animal number but increasing the milk production/cow by feeding additional forage was a less profitable option generating 50 and 1221 US$ of income per farm and year for LC and HC, respectively. The production of hay was limited by high costs (external labour) in LC communities and the restricted availability of family labour in the HC group. A scenario based on the use of improved cow genotypes led to the highest estimated annual farm income for HC communities (1280 US$) but was less favourable for LC. The modelling results showed that the best development strategy depends on various factors such as production costs, access to the markets and to irrigation and availability of different feed resources.     

Agricultural sector analysis on greenhouse gas mitigation in US agriculture and forestry

Mathematical programming is used to examine the economic potential of greenhouse gas mitigation strategies in US agriculture and forestry. Mitigation practices are entered into a spatially differentiated sector model and are jointly assessed with conventional agricultural production. Competition among practices is examined under a wide range of hypothetical carbon prices. Simulation results demonstrate a changing portfolio of mitigation strategies across carbon price. For lower prices preferred strategies involve soil and livestock options, higher prices, however, promote mainly bioenergy generation. Results demonstrate the sensitivity of individual strategy potentials to assumptions about alternative opportunities. Assessed impacts also include market shifts, regional strategy diversity, economic surplus distribution, and environmental co-effects.     

Econometric analysis of the determinants of adoption of rainwater harvesting and supplementary irrigation technology (RHSIT) in the semiarid Loess Plateau of China

Using a binary logistic regression model, this paper evaluates the determinants of farmers’ decisions to adopt rainwater harvesting and supplementary irrigation technology (RHSIT) and its elasticity of adoption in the rain-fed farming systems, based on a survey of 218 farmers in the semiarid areas of Loess Plateau in 2005. The results indicate that 12 variables are significant in explaining farmers’ adoption decisions. Farmers’ educational background, active labor force size, contact with extension, participation in the Grain-for-Green project, and positive attitudes towards RHSIT are some of the variables that have significantly positive effects on adoption of RHSIT, while farmer's age and distance from water storage tanks to farmers’ dwellings have significantly negative correlation with adoption. The probability of adoption also increases with increased targeting of institutional variables: credit obtained, assistance obtained, and technical training received. Farmers in villages that have more erosion problems are more likely to adopt RHSIT. Besides, the model indicates that a 1 unit increase in the diversity of irrigated crops grown by a household, especially high-value crops, results in a 6.98 times increase in the probability of RHSIT adoption. Variables such as family size, off-farm activity, level of family income, risk preference, and land tenure do not significantly influence adoption. This information will help prioritize the factors that affect adoption decisions and provide insight on pathways to increase the adoption of RHSIT.     

A logistic analysis of the factors determining the decision of smallholder farmers to intercrop: A case study involving rubber–tea intercropping in Sri Lanka

The factors influencing the decision of smallholder farmers to adopt new farming technologies were studied with reference to rubber–tea intercropping in Sri Lanka. Rubber–tea intercropping has been recommended previously to rubber farmers as a means to improve productivity and income during the early pre-tapping phase of rubber growth. Although crop trials have shown that the two crops are agronomically compatible and potentially produce a combined economic yield superior to the yield of a sole crop grown on the same area of land, there is little evidence of widespread adoption of this practice among smallholder farmers in Sri Lanka. The aim of the study was to determine the major factors that influence the decision to undertake rubber–tea intercropping and to construct a predictive model that describes the likelihood of adoption of intercropping by traditional smallholder rubber growers. A rapid rural appraisal (RRA) was undertaken based on semi-structured interviews of 90 smallholder farmers in the main rubber growing low wet zone of Sri Lanka. Among a number of factors shown to significantly influence the decision to intercrop tea with rubber, three were shown to operate independently, namely level of income, source of income (i.e. solely from own farm or from farm plus additional off-farm enterprises), and availability of land considered suitable for tea cultivation. A statistical model developed through correlation and logistic analysis, which predicts the likelihood of a smallholder adopting intercropping based on these factors, is presented and discussed. The most likely combination of circumstances (82% probability) under which rubber–tea intercropping is practiced is shown to be where the farmer’s income is greater than Rs. 10,000 per month, where the farmer’s income is based solely on own farm enterprises, and where more than 80% of the farmer’s land area was judged to be suitable for tea cultivation. Conversely, 30% of smallholder farmers that chose not to intercrop did possess land suitable for tea cultivation. Qualitative responses to the RRA indicated that limitation of technical knowledge was the main problem subsequently faced by rubber farmers who had adopted rubber–tea intercropping. Results indicate that there is need for both income support through farm subsidies and further agricultural extension services, if rubber–tea intercropping is to be adopted more widely in Sri Lanka. The wider usefulness of the developed logistic model in determining the likelihood of adoption of intercropping by smallholder farmers is discussed.     

Characterising rice-based farming systems to identify opportunities for adopting water efficient cultivation methods in Tamil Nadu, India

Efficient water use in rice cultivation is a prerequisite for sustaining food security for the rice consuming population of India. Novel rice production practices, including water-saving techniques, modifications in transplanting, spacing, weeding and nutrient management, have been developed and shown to be effective on farm, but adoption of these techniques by farmers has remained restricted. Potential constraints include technical difficulties with new practices, and labour and gender issues which differ between farms. On the basis of a rapid survey of 100 rice-based farms, four farm types were identified based on their socio-economic and biophysical characteristics. Detailed farm surveys were conducted on three representative farms of each farm type to evaluate land use patterns, use of inputs such as water, labour, nutrient, capital and machinery, income from crop and animal production and off-farm activities. Opportunities exist for one or more new rice cultivation techniques to be adopted in all the four farm types. For all farm types, however, the opportunities for use of water-saving irrigation were the least promising. In general, adoption of water-saving irrigation will not improve farmers’ livelihoods despite its importance in reducing water scarcity problems at regional scale. At farm scale, the potential for adoption of water-saving irrigation depends on the season, location of fields and the irrigation source. Changes in government policies such as rules and regulations, pricing, institution building and infrastructure development, as well as training and education of farmers are needed to improve the adoption of modified methods for rice cultivation.     

Household livelihood strategies and forest dependence in the highlands of Tigray,Northern Ethiopia

Forest environmental resources provide substantial contributions to the wellbeing of many rural dwellers. However, the level of forest use and the degree of reliance on forest environmental products differ across households. The factors that condition a household’s economic reliance on a particular economic activity in general and on forest environmental resources in particular may vary depending on the resource endowment of the household, the household’s demographic and economic characteristics, and exogenous factors such as markets, prices and technologies. This paper identifies the factors that condition a household’s livelihood strategy choice with a particular focus on forest products. For this, we use the livelihood approach as a framework of analysis. Environmentally augmented household income data were collected from 360 sample households in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. On the basis of the share of forest environmental income in total household income, sample households were clustered into distinct livelihood strategies. Student’s t-test and ANOVA were used to test income differences among the clusters. Multinomial logit (MNL) regression on asset-based explanatory variables was run to identify the main factors that determine households’ livelihood strategy choice and forest dependence. The analyses indicate that differential access to, or endowment of, livelihood assets determines the choice of a household’s strategy. Asset-poor households should be encouraged to engage in activities with higher economic return.     

A comparative analysis of rainfed and irrigated agricultural production in Ethiopia

Ethiopia’s economy is dependent on agriculture which contributes more than 50% to GDP, about 60% to foreign exchange earning and provides livelihood to more than 85% of the population. Ethiopia has a large potential of water resources that could be developed for irrigation. Despite the large water resources, Ethiopia continues to receive food aid to about 10% of the population who are at risk annually, out of a total of more than 67 million. The government of Ethiopia is committed to solving this paradox through an agricultural led development program that includes irrigation development as one of the strategies. This paper compares rainfed and irrigated agricultural production in Ethiopia. Using the stochastic production frontier approach, the study concludes that irrigation development in Ethiopia is a viable development strategy but attention needs to be paid to improving the technology available to farmers under both rainfed and irrigated production.     

吉林省保护性耕作技术与应用现状

长期以来,对黑土地的掠夺式开发利用和传统高强度的土壤耕作,使得黑土地逐渐变硬变薄,出现了严重的土壤退化问题,对我国粮食生产和农业发展产生不利影响。加强对黑土地的保护迫在眉睫,研究保护性耕作技术在黑土地上的应用效果和推广策略具有重要意义。结合吉林省保护性耕作实施情况和成功经验,介绍了保护性耕作技术的优势,阐述了保护性耕作在农作物增产增收、黑土地养护及社会效益等方面的作用,为促进保护性耕作在吉林省更好地推广实施提供借鉴。      

Farmers’ management strategies and land use in an agropastoral landscape: roquefort cheese production rules as a driver of change

Cultural landscapes in Europe provide a wide range of food products and fulfil social and environmental functions. In order to maintain agricultural practices that contribute to maintaining the biological and cultural value of semi-natural landscapes, agri-environmental schemes are being implemented in many western European countries. In the mountains of southern Europe a major issue is the encroachment of shrubs and trees through natural forest succession following agro-pastoral extensification.In this paper we analyse trends in land use strategies of sheep breeders in response to milk pricing and in relation to various within-farm mechanisms. We show that changes in production rules within the Roquefort cheese protected geographical indication have caused farmers to develop an alternative land use strategy. In this alternative model, farmers now consider rangelands as a valuable resource. By increasing the use of rangelands for sheep grazing and alimentation, this new strategy provides a more effective control of shrub and tree encroachment.We suggest that this involuntary consequence of production and market decisions has been at least as important as agri-environmental schemes in leading ewes’ milk producers to make changes in their land use strategy.     

Agricultural land management strategies to reduce phosphorus loads in the Gippsland Lakes, Australia

A target to reduce phosphorus flows into the Gippsland Lakes in south-eastern Australia by 40% in order to improve water quality has previously been established by stakeholders. This target, like many others worldwide, has been set mostly on the basis of environmental concerns, with limited consideration of issues such as technical feasibility, socio-economic constraints, political factors and associated costs and benefits. An integrated analysis at the catchment scale is undertaken to assess the agricultural land management changes required to achieve this target, and to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of these changes. Based on assumptions used, it appears technically feasible to achieve a 40% reduction in P load entering the Lakes. However, the least-costly way of doing so would require around A$1 billion over 25 years, a dramatic increase in the current levels of funding provided for management. Results of a sensitivity analysis indicate that there is little or no chance of investment in a 40% reduction being cost-effective. On the other hand, a 20% P reduction could be achieved at much lower cost: around $80 million over 25 years and requiring more modest land-management changes. Reliance on voluntary adoption of ‘Current Recommended Practices’ is unlikely to deliver changes in management practices at the scale required to have sufficient environmental impacts. Enforcement of existing regulations for the dairy industry would be amongst the most cost-effective management strategies. The major implications of this work for agriculturally induced diffuse-source pollution include the need for feedback between goal setting and program costs, and consideration of factors such as the levels of landholder adoption of new practices that are required and the feasibility of achieving those adoption levels. Costs, landholder adoption of new practices and socio-political risks appear neglected in the formulation of many water quality programs. The study provides a demonstration of an approach to integrated multidisciplinary research addressing complex environmental problems with multiple decision makers, multiple stakeholders, and high uncertainty. On the evidence of experience in this study, the approach deserves consideration in other contexts.     

美国的保护性耕作策略

任何一项农业技术的推广使用都属于综合性的运作。它的抉择要受农场和农民的影响,受技术的限制,受经济的和政策的制约。对于保护性耕作来说就更容易受到一些因素的影响。例如,土地所有权的问题就会影响到保护性耕作的实施。农场主比给别人经营农场的农民在是否采用保护性耕作上     

动力圆盘耙高效清理作物残茬的应用综述（摘选）

作物残茬处理是水土保持和土地生产力管理的一个重要方面;同时,为了提高作物产量,保持适当的土壤质地和结构也尤为重要。耕作方式在土壤保护和管理过程中起着至关重要的作用。过度耕作会导致水土流失、土壤板结和土壤结构恶化,从而降低其生产力。因此目前的耕作方式正在向少免耕方向转变。另一方面,以农业为支柱产业的发展中国家,如孟加拉国、柬埔寨、印度、菲律宾和泰国等,仍然以露天焚烧的方式处理作物秸秆。在从传统耕作方式向保护性耕作转型的背景下,农民正在寻找适当的机具来处理作物残茬,而动力圆盘耙作为一种通用型机具能适应多种土壤和操作条件,在保护性耕作中发挥着重要的作用。该文综述了各种田间耕作机械的优点、工作质量和相关问题,并证实动力圆盘耙在农田废弃物处理中的有效性。      

Poverty dynamics and the role of livestock in the Peruvian Andes

Livestock play an important role for poor rural households in regions such as the Peruvian Andes. Research methods leading to a better understanding of the role of livestock in household poverty dynamics, and what better targeted policies and interventions may enhance that role, however, are not readily available. We utilized multiple methods, including Stages-of-Progress and household surveys, which gave us a combination of qualitative and quantitative results. We examined how over the last 10 and 25 years households have moved into and out of poverty in 40 rural communities in two different highland regions of Peru. We also examined the role played in these movements by different livestock assets and strategies. We found a significant number of households had escaped poverty, while at the same time many households have fallen into poverty. The reasons for movements up versus down are not the same, with different strategies and policies needed to address escapes versus descents. Diversification of income through livestock and intensification of livestock activities through improved breeds has helped many households escape poverty and this method allowed us to explore what exactly this means in the diverse areas studied. These findings can contribute to better targeted livestock-related research and development strategies and policies, not only in Peru, but in other regions where similar livelihood strategies are being pursued.     

Can we maintain turf to customers’ satisfaction with less water?

Science-based, holistic, site-specific water conservation practices can reduce water use on turfgrass sites without adversely affecting turfgrass performance. However, when water use is decreased below a certain threshold, performance declines. Water conservation measures that reduce turfgrass performance essentially decrease its economic, environmental, recreational, and aesthetic values, which can in turn adversely impact many ‘stakeholders’, including the local economy and those affected by increased wind erosion, water erosion, or fire hazard. On larger turfgrass sites, considerable costs are associated with some water conservation strategies, especially when the quality of an alternative irrigation water source is poor or redesign of the landscape and/or irrigation system is involved.     

Adoption of improved land use technologies to increase food security in Burkina Faso: relating animal traction,productivity, and non-farm income

This article analyzes the determinants of animal traction adoption, and for traction and non-traction groups, the levels of land and labor productivity in Burkina Faso. There are three main conclusions. First, non-farm income was found to be an important indirect determinant of farm productivity, and ability to intensify production, via its effect on animal traction adoption. This was, in particular, the case for the zone where agriculture commercialization is occurring (the Guinean zone). Second, in a region where farmers were traditionally and even today thought to be tied to safety-first, subsistence strategies, our findings show that improved capital and variable inputs—traction and fertilizer and manure, and even labor and best quality land—are applied on cash crops, not on subsistence crops. Third, animal traction greatly improves land and labor productivity, particularly in more favorable agroclimatic zones such as Burkina's Guinean zone, and in the `intensification crops' that are also the main cash crops (maize and cotton). Traction farmers have an advantage in the quest to intensify farming in a region where population density is increasing rapidly.     

Economics of alternative simulated manual asparagus harvesting strategies

Asparagus is harvested daily during the production season. The adoption of harvesting strategies less or more frequent than the traditional 24-h strategy has not occurred because of problems in hiring manual labor. A model that predicts daily harvest and the impact of different harvesting strategies was developed. This paper presents a bioeconomic model, capable of predicting daily asparagus harvests, composed by different mathematical functions: emergence, density dynamics, spear growth, diameter, weight, carbohydrates reserve dynamics, and profit. The bioeconomic model was used to simulate yield, number of harvests, profit, and the total cost of harvest for every year in the period 1989–2004. A simulation with the minimum wage harvesting constraint was developed and is labeled as the constrained model. The model was evaluated using data from different locations for four consecutive years in Washington State (USA) asparagus fields. The impact of the minimum wage requirements was estimated in terms of yield and profit for both processed and fresh asparagus. The traditional harvest interval of 24 h was compared to a more frequent (12 h) and a less frequent (48 h) interval. Manual harvest with the interval of 12 h showed the best results in terms of yields and profits for both processed and fresh asparagus. Gains in profits with the actual production conditions in Washington State were US$183.88/ha and US$210.60/ha for processed and fresh product, respectively. The 48-h strategy resulted in decreased yields and profits.