A simple irrigation scheduling approach for pecans

Pecans are a major crop in New Mexico's Lower Rio Grande Valley (LRGV). It is estimated that New Mexico is responsible for about 21% of the world's pecan production (Lillywhite et al., 2007). Currently, approximately 12,000 ha of pecan orchards at various stages of growth consume 45% of the area's irrigation water. Pecan evapotranspiration (ET) varies with age, canopy cover, soil type, crop density and method of water management. Intense competition for the LRGV's limited water supply has created a serious need for better water management through improved irrigation scheduling. Annual pecan ET ranges from as low as 500 mm to as high as 1400 mm. Diversity of the pecan crop coefficient (K_c) and ET makes the task of irrigation scheduling for this crop very complicated. Using remote sensing technology and field ET measurements, a simple relationship was developed to relate crop coefficient and ET to canopy cover. This relationship is then used in combination with climate data to calculate daily and weekly water requirements for each orchard. The difference between annual ET values estimated from canopy cover and values measured with an eddy covariance flux tower ranged from 2 to 5%. The average ratio of estimated monthly ET values over measured ET values was 1.03 with the standard error of the estimate ranging from 10 to 20 mm/month. This methodology provides a simple tool that farmers can use to schedule irrigation of pecan orchards. Even though the methodology was developed for irrigation scheduling in the LRGV, it can be used in other locations by transferring the reference crop coefficients using K_c-GDD relationships.     

A Landsat-based energy balance and evapotranspiration model in Western US water rights regulation and planning

The quantification of evapotranspiration (ET) from irrigated projects is important for water rights management, water resources planning and water regulation. Traditionally, ET has been estimated by multiplying a weather-based reference ET by crop coefficients (K_c) determined according to the crop type and the crop growth stage. However, there is typically question regarding whether crops grown compare with the conditions represented by the K_c values, especially in water short areas. In addition, it is difficult to estimate the correct crop growth stage dates for large populations of crops and fields. METRIC (Mapping Evapotranspiration at high Resolution and with Internalized Calibration) is an image-processing model for calculating ET as a residual of the surface energy balance. METRIC is a variant of SEBAL, an energy balance process developed in the Netherlands by Bastiaanssen and was extended to provide tighter integration with ground-based reference ET. METRIC was applied with Landsat images in southern Idaho to predict monthly and seasonal ET for water rights accounting and for operation of ground water models. ET “maps” (i.e., images) provide the means to quantify, in terms of both the amount and spatial distribution, the ET on a field by field basis. The ET maps have been used in Idaho to quantify net ground-water pumpage in areas where water extraction from underground is not measured and to estimate recharge from surface-irrigated lands. Application and testing of METRIC indicates substantial promise as an efficient, accurate, and relatively inexpensive procedure to predict the actual evaporation fluxes from irrigated lands throughout a growing season.     

The dual crop coefficient approach using a density factor to simulate the evapotranspiration of a peach orchard: SIMDualKc model versus eddy covariance measurements

The dual crop coefficient approach accounts separately for plant transpiration and soil evaporation by using the basal crop coefficient and the evaporation coefficient, respectively. The SIMDualKc model, which performs the soil water balance simulation with estimation of the actual crop evapotranspiration (ET) with the dual crop coefficient approach, was applied to a drip-irrigated peach orchard under Mediterranean conditions. Orchard ET was obtained with the eddy covariance technique, which was subsequently correlated with tree transpiration estimated from sap flow measurements and soil evaporation determined with microlysimeters, thus providing ET for the whole irrigation season. Two years of field observations were used for model calibration and validation using those ET measurements and taking into account the fraction of ground covered by trees through a density factor which adjusts the basal crop coefficient. Model fitting relative to ET observations during calibration and validation provided indices of agreement averaging 0.90, coefficients of regression close to 1.0, root mean square errors around 0.41 mm and average absolute errors of 0.32 mm. Model fitting relative to transpiration and to soil evaporation produced similar results, so showing the adequateness of modelling.     

岷江源区Hargreaves法适用性与未来参考作物蒸散量预测

利用岷江源区1961—2010年逐日气象数据,采用FAO 56 Penman-Monteith和Hargreaves公式计算参考作物蒸散量,并以FAO 56 Penman-Monteith为标准对Hargreaves公式适用性进行评价,通过对Hargreaves公式转换系数C0进行修正,建立基于月尺度的参考作物蒸散发公式,结合Reg CM4.0区域模型生成的温度数据,对未来(2011—2099年)研究区参考作物蒸散发量变化进行预测。研究结果表明:通过通径分析发现,在岷江源区气温是影响参考作物蒸散量最重要的气象因子,采用基于温度法的参考作物蒸散发公式具有理论依据;采用未修正的Hargreaves公式明显高估了该区域参考作物蒸散量,特别是在雨季4—10月;修正后的Hargreaves公式绝对偏差与相对偏差显著减小,与FAO 56 Penman-Monteith月值之间均方根误差RMSE为3.76 mm、效率指数EF为0.39、可决系数CD为0.84,吻合系数d为0.8,能够满足研究区参考作物蒸散发估算精度;在未来气候变化情景下岷江源区参考作物蒸散量总体呈增加趋势,气候倾向率为5.6 mm/(10 a)。     

Evapotranspiration components and dual crop coefficients of coffee trees during crop production

Quantifying crop water consumption is essential for many applications in agriculture, such as crop zoning, yield forecast and irrigation management. The objective of this study was to determine evaporation (E), transpiration (T) and dual crop coefficients (Ke and Kcb) of coffee trees during crop production (3rd and 4th year of cultivation), conducted under sprinkler and drip irrigation and no irrigation, in Londrina, Paraná State, Brazil. Crop evapotranspiration (ET) was measured by weighing lysimeters cultivated with plants of cultivar IAPAR 59, E was measured by microlysimeters installed on the lysimeters and T was obtained by the difference between ET and E. The crop coefficient (Kc) was determined for the irrigated treatments as the ratio between ET and the reference evapotranspiration (ETo). Similarly, evaporation coefficient (Ke) and basal crop coefficient (Kcb) were determined as the ratio of E and T, respectively, to the value of ETo, which was estimated by the ASCE Penman-Monteith method on an hourly basis. The values of E and Ke varied due to atmospheric demand and water application method. Those factors, in addition to crop phenology and leaf area evolution, also influenced T and Kcb. Regardless irrigation treatment, the measured values of E represented 35% of ET, while T was 65% of ET. The recommended values of Ke were 0.46 and 0.26 for sprinkler and drip irrigation, respectively. The recommended values of Kcb were 0.52 and 0.82 for sprinkler-irrigated, and 0.5 and 0.65 for drip-irrigated treatments, varying as a function of daily ETo (ETo ≥ or <3 mm day⁻¹, respectively).     

Surface energy balance model of transpiration from variable canopy cover and evaporation from residue-covered or bare-soil systems

A surface energy balance model based on the Shuttleworth and Wallace (Q J R Meteorol Soc 111:839–855, 1985) and Choudhury and Monteith (Q J R Meteorol Soc 114:373–398, 1988) methods was developed to estimate evaporation from soil and crop residue, and transpiration from crop canopies. The model describes the energy balance and flux resistances for vegetated and residue-covered surfaces. The model estimates latent, sensible and soil heat fluxes to provide a method to partition evapotranspiration (ET) into soil/residue evaporation and plant transpiration. This facilitates estimates of the effect of residue on ET and consequently on water balance studies, and allows for simulation of ET during periods of crop dormancy. ET estimated with the model agreed favorably with eddy covariance flux measurements from an irrigated maize field and accurately simulated diurnal variations and hourly amounts of ET during periods with a range of crop canopy covers. For hourly estimations, the root mean square error was 41.4 W m⁻², the mean absolute error was 29.9 W m⁻², the Nash–Sutcliffe coefficient was 0.92 and the index of agreement was 0.97.     

Estimation of water consumption and crop water productivity of winter wheat in North China Plain using remote sensing technology

The North China Plain (NCP) is one of the most water stressed areas in the world. The water consumption of winter wheat accounts for more than 50% of the total water consumption in this region. An accurate estimate of the evapotranspiration (ET) and crop water productivity (CWP) at regional scale is therefore key to the practice of water-saving agriculture in NCP. In this research, the ET and CWP of winter wheat in 83 counties during October 2003 to June 2004 in NCP were estimated using the remote sensing data. The daily ET was calculated using SEBAL model with NOAA remote sensing data in 17 non-cloud days whereas the reference daily crop ET was estimated using meteorological data based on Hargreaves approach. The daily ET and the total ET over the entire growing season of winter wheat were obtained using crop coefficient interpolation approach. The calculated average and maximum water consumption of winter wheat in these 83 counties were 424 and 475 mm, respectively. The calculated daily ET from SEBAL model showed good match with the observed data collected in a Lysimeter. The error of ET estimation over the entire growing stage of winter wheat was approximately 4.3%. The highest CWP across this region was 1.67 kg m⁻³, and the lowest was less than 0.5 kg m⁻³. We observed a close linear relationship between CWP and yield. We also observed that the continuing increase of ET leads to a peaking and subsequent decline of CWP, which suggests that the higher water consumption does not necessarily lead to a higher yield.     

京郊平原参考作物腾发量及其与气象因子相关性研究

利用FAO56 Penman-Montieth公式和京郊平原区代表性气象站点的长系列、短时序气象资料计算了该地区的逐日ET0,对ET0及其各分项的时间变异特征进行了分析,采用相关分析法研究了ET0与主要气象影响因子间的关系。结果表明,研究区域近50年来ET0呈不显著的增加趋势,就其各分项来说,辐射项的年际变化幅度较小,而空气动力学项的年际波动较大,且与ET0的年际波动较为符合;ET0的年内变化呈"单峰形"分布,一年内的最大值出现在6月份,为162.6 mm,最小值则出现在12月份,为32.3 mm。从ET0的分项来看,5~9月份ETrad>ETaero,而其余月份ETrad相似文献   

Crop coefficients for winter wheat in a sub-humid climate regime

Estimations of evapotranspiration (ET) from natural surfaces are used in a large number of applications such as agricultural water management and water resources planning. Lack of reliable, cheap and easy-to-use instruments, associated with the chaotic and varying nature of the meteorological and plant physiological factors influencing ET cause these estimations to be based on calculated values rather than the measured ones. The two-step approach where ET from a reference crop is calculated and multiplied by empirical crop coefficients to obtain ET from a crop has gained wide acceptance. Daily coefficients for a winter wheat crop growing under standard conditions, i.e. not short of water and growing under optimal agronomic conditions, were estimated for a cold sub-humid climate regime. One of the two methods used to estimate ET from a reference crop required net radiation (R_n) as input. Two sets of coefficients were used for calculating R_n. Weather data from a meteorological station was used to estimate R_n and ET from the reference crop. The winter wheat ET was measured using an eddy covariance system during the main parts of the growing seasons 2004 and 2005. The meteorological data and field measurements were quality controlled and discarded from the analysis if flagged for errors. Daily values of ET from the reference crop and winter wheat calculated from hourly values were used to calculate the crop coefficients. Average daily crop coefficients were in the 1.1–1.15 range during mid-season with standard deviations ranging from 0.13 to 0.23 for both years. These values exceed values used in some sub-humid climate regime studies, but agree well with values from the international literature.     

Crop coefficients and water use for cowpea in the San Joaquin Valley of California

To improve irrigation planning and management, a modified soil water balance method was used to determine the crop coefficients and water use for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) in an area with a semi-arid climate. A sandy 0.8-ha field was irrigated with a subsurface drip irrigation system, and the soil moisture was closely monitored for two full seasons. The procedure used was one developed for cotton by DeTar [DeTar, W.R., 2004. Using a subsurface drip irrigation system to measure crop water use. Irrig. Sci. 23, 111-122]. Using a test and validate procedure, we first developed a double sigmoidal model to fit the data from the first season, and then we determined how well the data from the second season fit this model. One of the results of this procedure was that during the early part of the season, the crop coefficients were more closely related to days-after-planting (DAP) than to growing-degree-days (GDDs). For the full season, there was little difference in correlations for the various models using DAP and GDD. When the data from the two seasons were merged, the average value for the crop coefficient during the mid-season plateau was 0.986 for the coefficient used with pan evaporation, and it was 1.211 for the coefficient used with a modified Penman equation for ET₀ from the California Irrigation Management and Information System (CIMIS). For the Penman-Monteith (P-M) equation, the coefficient was 1.223. These coefficients are about 11% higher than for cotton in the same field with the same irrigation system. A model was developed for the merged data, and when it was combined with the normal weather data for this area, it was possible to predict normal water use on a weekly, monthly and seasonal basis. The normal seasonal water use for cowpea in this area was 669 mm. One of the main findings was that the water use by the cowpea was more closely correlated with pan evaporation than it was with the reference ET from CIMIS or P-M.     

Simulation of winter wheat evapotranspiration in Texas and Henan using three models of differing complexity

Crop evapotranspiration (ET) is an important component of simulation models with many practical applications related to the efficient management of crop water supply. The algorithms used by models to calculate ET are of various complexity and robustness, and often have to be modified for particular environments. We chose three crop models with different ET calculation strategies: CROPWAT with simple data inputs and no calibrations, MODWht for intensive inputs and limited calibrations, and CERES-Wheat with intensive inputs and more calibrations for parameters. The three crop models were used to calculate ET of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown at two experimental sites of China and US during multiple growing seasons in which ET was measured using lysimeter or soil water balance techniques. None of the models calculated daily ET well at either Bushland or Zhengzhou as indicated by high mean absolute differences (MAD > 1.1 mm) and root mean squared errors (RMSE > 2.0 mm). The three models tended to overestimate daily ET when measured ET was small, and to underestimate daily ET when measured ET was large. The fitted values of daily crop coefficients (K_c), calculated from daily ET and reference ET (ET_o), were very similar to those of Allen et al. (1998) [Allen, R.G., Pereira, S.L., Raes, D., Smith, M., 1998. Crop evapotranspiration guidelines for computing crop water requirements. Irrigation and drainage paper 56, Rome] although some K_c were overestimated (≥1.0). Leaf area index (LAI) was poorly calculated by MODWht and CERES-Wheat, especially when using the Priestley-Taylor method to estimate potential ET (PET). Poor overall ET calculation of three models was associated with poorly estimated values of PET or ET_o, K_c and LAI as well as their interactions. Therefore, this suggested that considerable revisions and calibrations of ET algorithms of the three models are needed for the improvement of ET calculation.     

广西多站点参考作物蒸散量时空变化分析

基于广西20个气象观测站点1957—2001年的逐月气象资料,采用Penman-Monteith公式计算各站点逐月、逐年参考作物蒸散量(ET0),采用变差系数和年际极值比分析ET0的年际变化特征,应用累积滤波器法、Ken-dall秩次相关法、R/S分析法分析ET0的变化趋势。研究结果表明,桂中ET0年际变化最剧烈,桂南ET0年际变化最小。岩溶发育地区的ET0的年际变化比非岩溶发育略显剧烈,但相差不大。20个站点中,5%站点的ET0呈显著上升趋势,95%站点的ET0呈下降趋势(下降趋势显著的站点占63.1%)。与1957—2001年相比,ET0呈上升趋势的站点由5%增加到未来的35%,且非岩溶地区ET0呈上升趋势的站点数大于岩溶地区。     

西北地区夏玉米不同生育期蒸发蒸腾量模拟模型适用性评价

【目的】蒸发蒸腾量(ET)是农业生产的主要参数,ET的准确估算对农田精准用水管理和区域水资源优化配置具有重要意义。【方法】利用2012—2013年夏玉米作物指数与气象因子,采用基于参考作物蒸发蒸腾量(ET0)经验模型(Schendel、Hargreaves-M4(H-M4))的单作物系数法、单源模型(Priestley-Taylor(P-T))和双源模型(Shuttleworth-Wallace、Two-Patch)对作物蒸发蒸腾量进行模拟,并对比分析各估算模型模拟情况。【结果】基于不同生育期实测和平衡蒸发蒸腾量均值的比值修正P-T模型经验系数?,P-T修正模型对夏玉米全生育期ET模拟值与大型称质量式蒸渗仪实测值拟合的平均绝对误差(MAE)、决定系数(R2)、平均相对误差(MRE)、相对均方根误差(Relative root mean-squared error,RRMSE)和整体评价指标(GPI)排名分别为0.977 5 mm/d、0.5689、0.843 4、0.450 4和1,苗期分别为0.959 2 mm/d、0.332 0、0.478 4、0.481 1和3,拔节抽雄期分别为1.038 8 mm/d、0.507 8、0.551 7、0.429 0和1,成熟期分别为0.548 1 mm/d、0.774 6、0.915 8、0.423 9、0.692 1和1;H-M4模型对灌浆期ET模拟MAE、R2、MRE、RRMSE和GPI排名分别为1.344 3 mm/d、0.727 9、2.298 3、0.491 0和1。模拟结果均达到极显著(P<0.01,P代表显著性水平)。【结论】P-T和基于单作物系数法的H-M4均具有输入较少参数获取较精确ET估算值的优势,因此P-T可作为全生育期及苗期、拔节抽雄期和成熟期蒸发蒸腾量最优模拟模型,H-M4可作为灌浆期蒸发蒸腾量最优模拟模型。     

Using a subsurface drip irrigation system to measure crop water use

Procedures are presented for determining crop water use and crop coefficients for a row crop, using a neutron scattering probe with an efficient subsurface drip irrigation system. One procedure is called the slope-projection method, and the other is called a covariance procedure. Field tests were conducted with full-season, narrow-row cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) on a well-drained, sandy soil in a semiarid environment over a 5-year period. The goal was to improve automated irrigation scheduling, by relating evapotranspiration (ET) to growing degree days (GDD). The result, using a Penman–Monteith reference ET, was an average midseason crop coefficient of 1.11, with a standard error of 0.056. With class A pan evaporation as the reference ET, the average midseason crop coefficient was 0.877, with a standard error of 0.029. A fifth-order polynomial for the pan-based crop coefficient as a function of GDD was programmed into a controller and used successfully to irrigate a field automatically for one season.Communicated by A. Kassam     

采用作物系数法和PM模型估算南京地区玉米田蒸发蒸腾量

蒸发蒸腾量(ET)是农田水平衡中的重要环节,ET的准确估算有助于提高农田水分管理水平。在测定农田小气候、土壤蒸发和玉米生长旺季液流量基础上,比较了单作物系数法(Kc法)、双作物系数法(Kcb法)、不同冠层阻力计算的Penman-Monteith模型(PM1和PM2法)估算南京地区玉米田ET的适用性,并对玉米整个生育期ET变化及其影响因素进行分析。结果表明以液流法和土壤蒸发测定的总ET为基准,PM1方法估算的夏玉米ET误差最小,与实际测定ET的决定系数(R2)、平均绝对误差(MAE)和一致性指数(d)分别为0.52、0.8 mm/d和0.48。以PM1模型估算的夏玉米全生育期ET为310mm,日均ET为3.16mm/d,最大值出现在拔节期和抽穗期,整体变化呈单峰型。ET与气象因素响应顺序为净辐射饱和水汽压温度风速。本研究可为优化玉米田水资源管理和提高水资源有效利用提供参考。     

新疆参考作物腾发量多元回归模型及空间分布

利用新疆境内42个气象站的多年气象资料,应用Penman-Monteith公式计算得到各站逐日和逐月尺度下的ET0值,应用多元统计回归分析得到相应的ET0与主要气象要素的回归方程,作为各地区计算ET0的经验公式.结合ArcGIS软件的空间分析功能,将各站回归方程的系数进行插值得出整个新疆地区ET0经验公式回归参数的空间分布图.结果表明,逐日和逐月尺度下,区域内的ET0空间分布差异显著,南部明显高于北部.回归所得的经验方程用来估算各地的ET0值是合理可靠的.回归所得的经验方程较Penman-Monteith公式简化得多,且具有一定精度,因此有一定的推广价值和应用前景.对于无气象资料地区,通过查图得出参数值,即可推算该区域特定时间尺度下的ET0值.     

基于公共天气预报的参考作物腾发量预报

针对Penman Monteith公式的应用局限性,以公共天气预报可测因子及历史气象数据计算ET₀为基准,对广州站2017-01-01-2019-03-31预报气象信息风力状况进行量化后,以2017,2018年气象预报信息为输入因子、ET₀为输出因子,分别建立基于回归型支持向量机(SVR)预报模型与BP神经网络预报模型,选择性能较优预报模型对2019年ET₀进行预报,并与计算值进行对比分析.结果表明:回归型支持向量机参考作物腾发量预报模型测试集确定性系数为0.896、均方误差为0.206,BP神经网络参考作物腾发量预报模型测试集确定性系数为0.851、均方误差为0.305,SVR参考作物腾发量预报模型均方误差及决定系数要明显优于BP神经网络;基于SVR模型的预报值与PM公式计算值相关系数为0.761,没有明显差异,表现出显著的相关性以及整体吻合度,可为灌溉预报及决策提供较为准确的ET₀预报数据.     

Using energy balance data for assessing evapotranspiration and crop coefficients in a Mediterranean vineyard

Improving water use efficiency is a key element of water management in irrigated viticulture, especially in arid or semi-arid areas. In this study, the micrometeorological technique “Eddy Covariance” was used to directly quantify the crop evapotranspiration (ET) and to analyze the complex relationships between evapotranspiration, energy fluxes, and meteorological conditions. Both observed Direct measurements (DIR) of latent heat flux (LE) and observed from the residual of the energy balance (REB) equation were used for crop evapotranspiration calculations. Observed crop coefficients (K _cms) were then determined using the standardized reference evapotranspiration (ET_o) equation for short canopies. In addition, linear approximations from observations were used to model the seasonal trend lines for crop coefficients and K _cs values were parameterized by first identifying the beginning and end of each growth stage. The modeled K _cs values were used to predict daily ET from ET_o measurements and compared with values from literature. The daily observed DIR ET values (ET_do) were lower than REB ET (ET_ro) during periods with precipitation, but they were similar during dry periods, which implies that energy balance closure is better when the surface is drier. Comparisons between modeled ET and crop ET estimated using K _c values from best agreement was observed between the modeled REB and FAO 56 and the local K _c values provided by the Regional Agency ARPAS showed good agreement with observed ET (from DIR and REB data) than the FAO 56 ones. The study confirmed that the availability of locally driven K _c could be relevant to quantify the crop water requirement and represents the starting point for a sustainable management of water resources.     

关中地区灌溉农业发展对区域蒸发的影响研究

主要从分析参考作物蒸发蒸腾量(ET0)的变化趋势来反映气候变化对蒸发的影响,从灌区实测水面蒸发量的变化趋势来分析灌溉农业发展对区域蒸发的影响。用改进后的Penman公式计算关中地区1961～2001年系列5个气象站的ET0,结果显示:80年代前后气候对关中地区年ET0值的影响有明显区别,80年代以后关中地区年ET0值增长趋势加大,受气候影响明显大于80年代以前。多年平均年内分布表明连续最大3月即6～8月占全年的比例为46%～48%,但80年代以后年内分布6～8月ET0所占比例有降低趋势;从泾惠渠灌区灌溉试验站实测水面蒸发资料分析,显示明显的逐年减少的趋势,年内分布表明6～8月水面蒸发量所占比例有降低趋势。说明灌溉农业发展引起农田小气候的变化,减少了夏季潜在的蒸发和实际蒸发量。     

冬小麦蒸发系数变化规律研究

作物蒸发蒸腾量(ET)是进行合理灌溉和水资源配置的重要依据。为了更方便地估算作物蒸发蒸腾量,以大型称重式蒸渗仪实测的冬小麦蒸发蒸腾量(ET)为依据,分析了水面蒸发量(E0)与实测蒸发蒸腾量(ET)的相关性,并研究了蒸发系数的变化规律。结果表明:水面蒸发量(E0)和蒸渗仪实测值(ET)呈线性关系,冬小麦全生育期内二者的相关系数R2=0.7708,蒸发系数α=1.37。在冬小麦的整个生育期内α先是由大变小,接着再增大直到在抽穗—灌浆期达到最大值,之后再慢慢减小。