First record of ambrosia beetle (Euplatypus parallelus) infestation on cashew from Goa, India

The occurrence of ambrosia beetle Euplatypus parallelus (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Curculioninae: Platypodinae) infestation on cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is reported for the first time from Goa, India. Most of the infested trees were either previously attacked by cashew stem and root borer Plocaederus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) or were pruned trees. The visible symptoms of attack include appearance of numerous round bore holes on the tree trunk and branches, and extrusion of fibrous dust frass on the tree trunk and in loose piles at the base of the tree. Large numbers of larvae, pupae and adults were observed in the galleries of the affected trees. Adult beetles measure 4.0–4.3 mm in length and are brown in color, having long and slender bodies with yellow hairs. They have a characteristic feature of absence of pores on the pronotum. Male and female insects were identified based on the elytral declivity.     

Bacterial community associated with the ambrosia beetle Platypus cylindrus on declining Quercus suber trees in the Alentejo region of Portugal

In Portugal, the oak pinhole borer Platypus cylindrus and its mycobiota have been associated with cork oak (Quercus suber) death, but no knowledge exists regarding the associated bacterial community. However, it is known that some bacteria are important for ambrosia beetle symbiosis and play a role in oak tree health. To explore the bacteria associated with this beetle and its host, with the ultimate goal of highlighting potential roles in oak decline, this study used a culture-dependent approach for strain isolation and phylogenetic identification using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA). The bored galleries of different cork oak trees from a cork stand in Alentejo, together with the body and mycangia of adult beetles, were investigated. The samples revealed a diverse community comprising 500 isolates with 64 distinct types of bacterial colonies. Sixty-eight strains were selected for sequencing and used for phylogenetic analysis, 40 from wood galleries and 28 from beetles. Thirty-two genera of bacteria were identified, 18 of which were described for the first time within oak–beetle interactions. Major taxonomic groups were Actinobacteria in beetles and Enterobacterales in wood galleries. Although specific oak bacterial pathogens were not detected, a group of distinct strains detected in wood galleries, potentially belonging to a new Pectobacteriaceae species, were able to produce mild symptoms on cork oak plantlets. This study reports for the first time the biodiversity of culturable bacteria associated with the Q. suber–P. cylindrus interaction, their relevance to both organisms and the possible contribution to oak decline.     

PM 8/5 (1) Quercus

Specific scope

The purpose of the EPPO Standard on Quercus is to recommend to EPPO Member Governments the phytosanitary measures which they should use or require for Quercus plants and plant products moving in international trade to prevent the introduction and spread of quarantine pests. Some of these recommendations are addressed to all EPPO Member Governments, others are addressed only to countries considered to face a certain level of risk from the introduction and spread of the regulated pests concerned. All these recommendations were derived from:

• EPPO Standards PM 1/2 (EPPO A1 and A2 lists) and the former EPPO Standards PM 2 (pest‐specific phytosanitary measures), or
• Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) carried out or reviewed by EPPO, or
• the Working Party on Phytosanitary Regulations.

For wood packaging material, recommendations are based on ISPM 15 Regulation of wood packaging material in international trade.

Specific approval and amendment

First approved in 2010‐09 as PM 8/3 Quercus and Castanea. Revised and approved as a separate Standard PM 8/5 in 2017‐09     

CAPRA: the EPPO Computer Assisted PRA scheme*

The EPPO Secretariat has developed computer software for Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) within the EC 7th Framework Programme PRATIQUE (Enhancements of Pest Risk Analysis Techniques) and with the support of the EPPO Panels. The software, Computer Assisted PRA (CAPRA), aims to assist pest risk analysts to run the EPPO Decision‐support scheme for pest risk analysis [EPPO Standard PM 5/3(5) Decision‐support scheme for quarantine pests], and other decision‐support schemes. It is freely avaliable on the EPPO website or on http://capra.eppo.org/ .     

PM 8/4 (1) Castanea

Specific scope

The purpose of the EPPO Standard on Castanea is to recommend to EPPO Member Governments the phytosanitary measures which they should use or require for Castanea plants and plant products moving in international trade to prevent the introduction and spread of quarantine pests. Some of these recommendations are addressed to all EPPO Member Governments, others are addressed only to countries considered to face a certain level of risk from the introduction and spread of the regulated pests concerned. All these recommendations were derived from:

• EPPO Standards PM 1/2 (EPPO A1 and A2 Lists) and the former EPPO Standards PM 2 (pest‐specific phytosanitary measures), or
• Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) carried out or reviewed by EPPO, or
• the Working Party on Phytosanitary Regulations.

For wood packaging material, recommendations are based on ISPM 15 Regulation of wood packaging material in international trade.

Specific approval and amendment

First approved in 2010‐09 as PM 8/3 Quercus and Castanea. Revised and approved as a separate Standard PM 8/4 in 2017‐09     

PM 8/8 (1) Salix

Specific scope

The purpose of the EPPO Standard on Salix is to recommend to EPPO Member Governments the phytosanitary measures which they should use or require for Salix plants and plant products moving in international trade to prevent the introduction and spread of quarantine pests. Some of these recommendations are addressed to all EPPO Member Governments, others are addressed only to countries considered to face a certain level of risk from the introduction and spread of the regulated pests concerned. All these recommendations were derived from:

• EPPO Standards PM 1/2 (EPPO A1 and A2 Lists) and the former EPPO Standards PM 2 (pest‐specific phytosanitary measures), or
• Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) carried out or reviewed by EPPO, or
• the Working Party on Phytosanitary Regulations.

For wood packaging material, recommendations are based on ISPM 15 Regulation of wood packaging material in international trade.

Specific approval and amendment

First approved in September 2017‐09.     

PM 8/6 (1) Betula

Specific scope

The purpose of the EPPO Standard on Betula is to recommend to EPPO Member Governments the phytosanitary measures which they should use or require for Betula plants and plant products moving in international trade to prevent the introduction and spread of quarantine pests. Some of these recommendations are addressed to all EPPO Member Governments, others are addressed only to countries considered to face a certain level of risk from the introduction and spread of the regulated pests concerned. All these recommendations were derived from:

• EPPO Standards PM 1/2 (EPPO A1 and A2 Lists) and the former EPPO Standards PM 2 (pest‐specific phytosanitary measures), or
• Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) carried out or reviewed by EPPO, or
• the Working Party on Phytosanitary Regulations.

For wood packaging material, recommendations are based on ISPM 15 Regulation of wood packaging material in international trade.

Specific approval and amendment

First approved in 2017‐09.     

PM 8/7 (1) Populus

Specific scope

The purpose of the EPPO Standard on Populus is to recommend to EPPO Member Governments the phytosanitary measures which they should use or require for Populus plants and plant products moving in international trade to prevent the introduction and spread of quarantine pests. Some of these recommendations are addressed to all EPPO Member Governments, others are addressed only to countries considered to face a certain level of risk from the introduction and spread of the regulated pests concerned. All these recommendations were derived from:

• EPPO Standards PM 1/2 (EPPO A1 and A2 Lists) and the former EPPO Standards PM 2 (pest‐specific phytosanitary measures), or
• Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) carried out or reviewed by EPPO, or
• the Working Party on Phytosanitary Regulations.

For wood packaging material, recommendations are based on ISPM 15 Regulation of wood packaging material in international trade.

Specific approval and amendment

First approved in 2017‐09.     

Report of a rapid pest risk analysis for Lambdina fiscellaria (Guenée, [1858]) (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) for the island of Ireland

The hemlock looper, Lambdina fiscellaria (Guenée), is a serious forest pest in North America with three subspecies that vary in their geographical range and larval host preferences. Both broadleaved and coniferous trees are infested, though the largest impacts are on coniferous forestry where trees can be completely defoliated and killed. The pest was identified as a potential threat to forestry on the island of Ireland during a horizon‐scanning exercise to identify pests of Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. (Sitka spruce) and was subject to a rapid pest risk analysis (PRA). Though judged to be unlikely, pathways identified were uncontrolled wood commodities and mosses and lichens harvested from forests in North America and exported for use in ornamental displays. Lambdina fiscellaria is found in a range of climate types, and is likely to be able to complete its lifecycle in the Irish climate – although there is uncertainty concerning its ability to adapt to European trees. Lambdina fiscellaria has only a limited capacity for spread, as virgin females are burdened by their eggs and are poor fliers. This was judged to reduce potential impacts in the PRA area – as the slow rate of spread would provide time to develop monitoring and control methods well ahead of the pest reaching its maximum extent on the island of Ireland. The pest still poses a considerable risk to coniferous forestry not only on the island of Ireland but across the EPPO region where climate is suitable for the pest to establish. Regulation and implementation of phytosanitary measures prevent introduction of the pest should be considered.     

Lateral transfer of a phytopathogenic symbiont among native and exotic ambrosia beetles

Different ambrosia beetle species can coexist in tree trunks, where their immature stages feed upon symbiotic fungi. Although most ambrosia beetles are not primary pests and their fungal symbionts are not pathogenic to the host tree, exceptional situations exist. Notably, Xyleborus glabratus carries a phytopathogenic symbiont, Raffaelea lauricola, which causes laurel wilt, a lethal disease of some Lauraceae species. Both X. glabratus and R. lauricola are natives of Asia that recently invaded much of the coastal plain of the southeastern USA. This study examined ambrosia beetles that breed in susceptible trees in Florida (USA), including avocado (Persea americana), redbay (P. borbonia) and swampbay (P. palustris). Raffaelea lauricola was recovered from six of eight ambrosia beetle species that emerged from laurel wilt‐affected swampbay trees, in addition to X. glabratus. Controlled infestations with cohorts of the six species other than X. glabratus revealed that each could transmit the pathogen to healthy redbay trees and two could transmit the pathogen to healthy avocado trees; laurel wilt developed in five and one of the respective beetle × host interactions. These results indicate flexibility in the lateral transfer of a non‐native ambrosial fungus to other ambrosia beetles, and for the first time documents the transmission of a laterally transferred phytopathogenic symbiont by new ambrosia beetle species. Additional work is needed to determine whether, or to what extent, the new beetle × R. lauricola combinations play a role in spreading laurel wilt.     

Population genetic structure of Raffaelea quercus-mongolicae indicates a recent fungal introduction event to Jeju Island from inland areas of South Korea

Raffaelea quercus-mongolicae, a mycangial symbiont of a wood-boring ambrosia beetle, Platypus koryoensis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Platypodidae), has been associated with the mass mortality of Korean oak trees in South Korea. Systemic wilt from the inoculation of oak trees with R. quercus-mongolicae has caused significant damage to forest ecosystems in the country. Despite the continued spread of this fungus across the country since the first discovery of the disease, little is known regarding its biology. During a recent survey carried out to investigate the status of oak wilt diseases on Jeju Island, South Korea, visible signs of bark beetle attack, including bark beetle frass and galleries, were consistently observed in Quercus serrata, and R. quercus-mongolicae was successfully recovered from the trees. To determine whether the pathogen was introduced from inland areas of the country to Jeju Island, the genetic diversity and population structure of R. quercus-mongolicae isolates collected from various geographical regions and hosts in the country were investigated using a combination of eight microsatellite markers designed from the genome of the fungus in this study. The results showed lower levels of genetic diversity for the population from Jeju Island compared to those from inland areas of the country. This suggests that a limited number of individuals were recently introduced to Jeju Island, resulting in a new disease problem in the area.     

Pest risk analysis and invasive alien plants: progress through PRATIQUE*

The EPPO Decision‐support scheme (DSS) for Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) was fundamentally revised by the PRATIQUE EU project. Based on the examples of Polygonum perfoliatum (mile‐a‐minute‐weed) and Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth), its applicability for invasive alien plants was tested. By means of a comparison of the risk analysis procedures with EPPO schemes before and after the project, pest group specific enhancements are outlined. For the two plants tested here, documented invasion history as well as biotic and abiotic requirements show that they can establish and spread in Europe and cause damage. PRATIQUE revisions to the EPPO DSS increased transparency, user friendliness and consistency for PRAs on invasive alien plants. This was accomplished through more comprehensive rating guidance, and aspects such as allowing individual risk elements to be documented and summarized to give a conclusive end result.     

Pest risk analysis for Solanum elaeagnifolium and international management measures proposed

Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav., originating from the Americas, has been unintentionally introduced in all the other continents as a contaminant of commodities, and is considered one of the most invasive plants worldwide. In the Euro‐Mediterranean area, it is a huge threat in North African countries. It is also present in European Mediterranean countries (France, Greece, Italy and Spain), but still has a limited distribution. Through a logical sequence of questions, pest risk analysis (PRA) assessed the probability of S. elaeagnifolium entering, establishing, spreading and having negative impacts in European and Mediterranean countries. As this assessment revealed that the entry of the pest would result in an unacceptable risk, pest risk management options were selected to prevent the introduction of the plant. Preventive measures on plants or plant products traded internationally may directly or indirectly affect international trade. According to international treaties, PRA is a technical justification of such international preventive measures.     

Assessing risks of pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus transfer between wood packaging by simulating assembled pallets in service

The risks of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (pine wood nematode) transfer in relation to wood material were assessed. Combinations of infested and non‐infested adjacent boards, long‐blocks and blocks of Pinus pinaster, simulating assembled pallets, were assessed. For the recipient wood, pieces with natural moisture content (MC), heat‐treatment (56°C for 30 min in the core) and kiln‐drying to <20% MC were tested, along with in‐service boards from pallets. Donor and recipient wood materials were kept in direct contact at 25°C or 10°C, with nine replicates per treatment. Bursaphelenchus xylophilus was found to transfer rapidly at 25°C when the wood had an MC above fibre‐saturation point (>30%). Nematode reproduction was rapid and sustained, gradually declining to zero at 40 weeks. Bursaphelenchus xylophilus did not transfer to kiln‐dried or to in‐service wood with an MC below fibre‐saturation point, or to wood at 10°C. The key factors determining nematode transfer were the ambient temperature, the nematode load of the donor wood and the MC of the recipient wood, with a ‘barrier’ of 20% MC below which it becomes unsuitable for nematode transfer. This finding indicates that there is a limited risk of spread of B. xylophilus in treated and untreated solid wood packaging materials.     

Invasion potential of Agrilus planipennis and other Agrilus beetles in Europe: import pathways of deciduous wood chips and MaxEnt analyses of potential distribution areas

Bark‐ and wood‐boring beetles in the genus Agrilus (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) can survive wood‐chipping, and Agrilus planipennis has established in North America and European Russia with devastating impacts on forest ecosystems. The work presented in this paper combined import statistics of deciduous wood chips, Maximum entropy modelling (MaxEnt) of climatic similarities, and the distribution of potential tree hosts to predict the likelihood of four selected North American Agrilus species to become introduced and established in Europe. In agreement with the EU's energy‐policy target of increased use of wood chips, there was a linear or exponential increase in European imports of deciduous wood chips during the past 10 years from countries harbouring potentially harmful Agrilus species. MaxEnt showed high environmental suitability in Europe for the four selected Agrilus species, particularly in Eastern Europe and European Russia for A. anxius, A. bilineatus and A. planipennis and in southern Europe for A. politus. Documented susceptible host trees are widely distributed in the predicted areas of Agrilus distribution in Europe, and these areas receive large quantities of deciduous wood chips from countries where these and other Agrilus species are present. Thus, it was concluded that the fundamental conditions for introduction and establishment of Agrilus species in Europe are in place.     

Pest survey of softwood boxes,with special emphasis on pinewood nematode,Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Nematoda: Parasitaphelenchidae)

Wood packaging material (WPM) is an important pathway for the spread of non‐native plant pests. To reduce the likelihood of plant pest movement with WPM, the International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures No. 15: “Regulation of Wood Packaging Material in International Trade” (ISPM 15) was developed in the framework of the International Plant Protection Convention. To be compliant with this Standard, WPM shipped internationally must be either heat‐treated or fumigated, regardless of any specific characteristics of the WPM. The objective of this survey was to determine if Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Nematoda: Parasitaphelenchidae) or insects, especially Monochamus spp. (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), were present in a specific subset of softwood boxes. While not compliant with ISPM 15, these boxes had been treated with wood preservatives, stored indoors for over five years, and, in addition to meeting various quality standards, almost all had a moisture content below 20 percent. United States Department of Agriculture staff inspected a sample of 630 softwood boxes, focusing on those showing signs of possible pest infestation. Based on a binomial distribution with an efficacy of detection equal to 0.95, a sample size of 630 provides a 95 percent confidence of detecting pests if >0.5 % of boxes are infested. No B. xylophilus or insect pests were found in the boxes, though other nematode genera (Aphelenchoides, Aphelenchus, and Filenchus), which feed on decomposing fungi in wood and do not damage trees, were found in 21 boxes. This study demonstrates that not all types of WPM present a high phytosanitary risk. It may be worthwhile to consider an amendment to ISPM 15 to differentiate between various risk categories of WPM in order to minimize costs and environmental impacts associated with treatments currently prescribed in ISPM 15.     

The termiticidal activity of Sextonia rubra (Mez) van der Werff (Lauraceae) extract and its active constituent rubrynolide

BACKGROUND: Termites are degradation agents that inflict severe damage on wood. Some long‐lasting Amazonian trees can resist these insects by producing toxic secondary metabolites. These metabolites could potentially replace synthetic termiticidal products which are becoming more restricted to use. RESULTS: Sextonia rubra is resistant to termite‐induced degradation. It has been demonstrated that this species naturally produces an ethyl‐acetate‐soluble termiticidal metabolite, rubrynolide, to protect its wood. Assays in the presence of tropical and invasive termites established that both rubrynolide and crude ethyl acetate extract from S. rubra wood can be used as a treatment for the protection of sensitive woods against termites. CONCLUSION: Rubrynolide and S. rubra extract are promising candidates for the replacement of synthetic termiticides. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Vegetative compatibility groups in Colletotrichum coccodes from Turkey and their aggressiveness to potato

Black dot, caused by Colletotrichum coccodes, is a common disease of potato in Turkey, affecting tuber quality and yield. The objectives of the current study were to characterize vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) of C. coccodes isolates from three regions in Turkey, and to assess the correlation between VCGs and aggressiveness of isolates on potato. A total of 147 C. coccodes isolates were recovered from plants showing typical black dot symptoms on stolons, roots and stems. The frequency of nitrate non‐utilizing (nit) nit1/nit3 and NitM phenotypes were 79% and 21%, respectively. Complementation between nit mutants of the isolates and eight European/Israeli EU/I‐VCG tester isolates was used to characterize the VCGs. Amongst the tested isolates, 33.3% were assigned to EU/I‐VCG6, 21.8% to EU/I‐VCG8, 15.7% to EU/I‐VCG4. EU/I‐VCG1, EU/I‐VCG3, EU/I‐VCG5 and EU/I‐VCG7 were classified at 1.4%, 3.4%, 4.8% and 5.4%, frequency, respectively. No isolate was assigned to EU/I‐VCG2 group, while 21 isolates (14.3%) were not assigned to any of the EU/I‐VCGs. The pathogenicity tests indicated significant differences in aggressiveness of the isolates with respect to sclerotia density on potato tissues. The highest densities of sclerotia on roots and crown were obtained with EU/I‐VCG6 isolates and the lowest with EU/I‐VCG1, EU/I‐VCG3 and EU/I‐VCG5 isolates. The results demonstrate that there is significant VCG diversity among C. coccodes isolates from potato plants in Turkey.     

Survival of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and Monochamus galloprovincialis in pine branches and wood packaging material

Survival and development of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (pine wood nematode) was studied for up to 40 weeks in Pinus pinaster sawn wood and branches: 30 boards (1200 × 100 × 25 mm), 30 long‐blocks (1200 × 95 × 95 mm), 10 pine branches with bark and nine branches without bark (1200 mm long). The nematode was found in all materials and through the entire sampling period, with higher abundance in the sawn wood (boards and long‐blocks). In the initial period B. xylophilus reproduced abundantly and a population peak was detected at 8–12 weeks. Subsequently, the populations declined and became dominated by third‐stage resistant larvae (J_III), and in the final sample nematode abundance was very low. Nematode decline in the wood was correlated with a decrease in the moisture content (MC) to below fibre saturation. Survival of the insect vector Monochamus galloprovincialis was also assessed in sawn boards (1200 × 100 × 25 mm, n = 31) and blocks (160 × 95 × 95 mm, n = 40). The majority of the larvae were killed when sawing the wood, although some adults successfully emerged from the boards (10% survival) and blocks (37%). These results represent a contribution to the quantification of the risks of dispersing pine wilt disease through wood packaging materials, confirming that untreated wood can support healthy and abundant B. xylophilus populations for sufficient time for vectors surviving the sawing process to complete their development, to emerge and disperse the nematode.