Safeguarding herds from the animal hygiene point of view

One of the most important concepts for the protection of herd health is the implementation of structural and organisational measures to prevent infective agents and other adverse compounds from entering the farm. Safeguarding health, well-being and production efficiency is part of the overall management concept of hygiene in animal production systems. This paper presents an overview of the most important rules and recommendations to protect livestock production facilities from the intrusion of infectious pathogens, beginning with the right choice of the site for the farm and the animal housing ("safe distances" to neighbouring farm animal houses), solid fencing and control and disinfecting places at the entrance gate. The traffic of vehicles and people transporting animals, feedstuff, equipment and slurry or manure to and from the facility should be reduced to a minimum. Fallen animals should be stored in separate and safe containers until removed by specialised companies. Regular control of rodents, insects and wild birds is crucial to avoid the transfer of infectious agents from farm to farm and between herds within a farm. Equally important factors are the health status of personnel to avoid transmission of zoonotic diseases, the application of the all-in-all-out system and a strict cleaning and disinfecting regime. The internal and external organisational measures for preventing the spread of infections in animal production will gain increasing importance in the future because the farm animal producer bears the responsibility for the production of safe and healthy food at the primary segment of the food chain. Increasing restrictions on the use of veterinary drugs for food delivering animals will increase the importance of prophylaxis, prevention and protection of production units as the keys for safeguarding health, well-being and efficiency of farm animals. Only the application of strict hygiene principles in animal production will make it possible to meet the consumer demand for safe and high quality food of animal origin.     

Epidemiology and quality assurance: applications at farm level

Animal production is relevant with respect to farm income and the position of the sector in the market, but also with respect to the quality and safety of products of animal origin, related to public health. Animal production is part of a chain of food production. Therefore, producers have to take consumer expectations and demands in the domains of animal health, welfare and environment into account. A different attitude for production has to be adopted; this attitude can be visualized in good farming practice, GFP, codes. Farmers who focused on quality in its broadest sense need a system supporting them in their management and control of quality risks. Generally speaking, there are three systems for that purpose: GFP, ISO and HACCP. When the hypothesis followed relates to animal health being a feature of quality, or else welfare and environmental issues, then animal health care can be executed following quality control principles. The HACCP concept is well suited for quality control at farm level, involving risk identification and risk management. The on-farm monitoring and surveillance system of critical control points in the animal production process is the most important tool in this procedure. Principles for HACCP application as well as certification fitness of HACCP are elaborated upon. They are illustrated by using salmonellosis in meat-pig farms as objective for an HACCP approach. It is further discussed that, in addition to animal health and quality, animal welfare and environmental issues could also be covered by an HACCP-like system in an integrated manner. Ultimately, the HACCP modules could end up in an overall ISO certification.     

Microbial risks--from animal farming to the food

Microorganisms by far are representing the most important cause for food safety risks. Sources of food contamination are given along the whole food chain. The most frequent causative agents of food infections, Salmonella and Campylobacter, mostly can be found in the animals herds. A real improvement of the situation can only be reached by a strong inclusion of the agricultural area in the programs for repressing the pathogens. Problems in animal health and premortal stress of the slaughter animals cause considerable bacterial translocation processes and increase the consumer risks. Only few publications exist on the influence of the animal farming systems on the development of microbial food risks. The consumer accepts only animal management systems, which meet the demands for animal welfare, economical efficiency and especially the demand for product safety.     

The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point's (HACCP) concept as applied to some chemical, physical and microbiological contaminants of milk on dairy farms. A prototype

Quality management on dairy farms becomes more and more important regarding the different areas of animal health, animal welfare and food safety. Monitoring animals, farm conditions and farm records can be extended with risk identification and risk management. The hazard analysis critical control point's system is useful as an on farm strategy to control the product as well as the production process on the areas of animal health, animal welfare and food safety. This article deals in detail with the question how to develop a qualitative method where risk can be defined as an interaction between probability and impact. Two parts of the production process (milk harvest and treatment of cows) where used as an example how to apply the hazard analysis critical control point's system on chemical, physical and microbiological contaminants of milk. Not just only by summarizing the different critical checkpoints for each area but also by giving them a precise judgement of probability and impact.     

Learning and the training of farm animals

The focus of learning studies shifted considerably about 30 years ago. Research moved away from using farm species as experimental animals (that is, as a tool) in which to study learning theory, to a genuine interest in the learning abilities and training processes of individual species. Growing use is being made of operant conditioning and other learning techniques to assess how animals learn from experience and their ability to control their environment to improve their well-being. The processes involved in extinguishing undesirable behaviors and establishing behaviors more compatible with farming operations, the use of handling during early sensitive periods, and the careful habituation of animals to intensive farming conditions and modern automated systems complement the on-going genetic selection of farm animals more suited to modern farms. Learning is an important way for animals to cope with and adapt to changing environments and, as such, is fundamental to their general well-being. Learning in farm animals is of vital concern to veterinarians, agricultural engineers, and those involved with animal husbandry and welfare.     

Farm animal welfare: the five freedoms and the free market

This review addresses the scientific, ethical and economic factors that impact on the welfare of farm animals. Respect for animals within the food chain is considered within the context of an ethical matrix that affords respect according to the principles of wellbeing, autonomy and justice to consumers, farm animals, farmers and the living environment. The welfare of a farm animal depends on its ability to sustain fitness and avoid suffering. The responsibility of the farmer is to make provision for good welfare through good husbandry; he cannot ensure good welfare. Improvements to farm animal welfare can only come about within the context of the forces that drive the free market. In essence, consumers need to afford a greater extrinsic value to farm animals. The costs to farmers of legislation to impose higher animal welfare standards are substantial but the cost to consumers can be very small. The responsibility is therefore on the consumer to convert an expressed desire for higher welfare standards into an effective demand. A promising route to encourage and fulfil this demand is through welfare-based quality assurance schemes with quality control ensured by independent audit. At present, audit protocols are based largely on identification of the elements of good husbandry. Ultimately we need a further independent audit to ensure that the outcome of these perceived elements of good husbandry is, in fact, good animal welfare.     

Satisfaction of farm animal behavioral needs in behaviorally restricted systems: Reducing stressors and environmental enrichment

In modern intensive husbandry, systems often restrict farm animal behavior. Behavioral needs will be generated by external stimuli such as stressors deriving from environmental factors or the method of animal care, or some internal factor in farm animals. This means that behavioral restriction would induce maladaptation to stressors or chronic stress. Such a risk of behavioral restriction degrades an animal's physical and mental health and leads to economic loss at a farm. Methods to reduce the risk of behavioral restrictions are to ameliorate the source of a stressor through adequate animal management or to carry out environmental enrichment. This review is intended to describe the relation between animal management and behavioral needs from the perspective of animal motivation.     

Animal health and animal health care concepts changing over time

The term "animal health", in particular applied to herds and flocks of food animals, needs to be newly defined in the light of the growing societal concerns with modern husbandry systems and animal welfare. This paper deals with a definition of animal health, which is extended to the well being of the animals and to pre-harvest food safety aspects. The future activities of food animal veterinarians have to meet the new demands and societal expectations discussed in this paper.     

Poultry husbandry and animal health

Close interactions are existing between poultry husbandry and poultry health. The more housing systems and the environment of the animals can be controlled, the less the general risk of disorders in poultry flocks--especially of diseases which are caused by the introduction of microoganisms. Resulting deterimental effects will affect not only the animals themselves, but also pose a risk indirectly for humans via food originating from animals under production. Also, by keeping the risk of infections as low as possible, the use of therapeutics can be avoided. This will reduce the risk of residues in food of animal origin. In summary, with all probability open poultry husbandry systems, especially those including free range systems pose increased risks for poultry health and consequently for the quality of food originating from poultry production. At least, those systems require highest standards of biosecurity, defined as management, location, farm layout, cleaning and desinfection incl. pest control programs, immunization and specific veterinary monitoring concepts to prevent infections.     

Is dietary choice important to animal welfare?

Scientific interest in farm animal welfare has grown rapidly in recent years because consumers increasingly demand that farm animals are reared, transported, and slaughtered in a humane way. Additionally, nutrition emerges as an important aspect of welfare since in most codes of recommendations for the welfare of animals, adequate nutrition is one of the primary requirements to be satisfied. We submit that in many cases domestic animals are provided with diets that, even when abundant and nutritious, are not necessarily adequate to foster the welfare of animals. The monotonous diets fed in confinement (total mixed rations) and on pasture (monocultures) often contain excesses of nutrients, nutrient imbalances, and toxins that adversely influence animal welfare. How much of any food an animal can eat will depend on the other foods it consumes, because at the biochemical level, nutrients and toxins interact one with another—nutrients with nutrients, nutrients with toxins, and toxins with toxins. Food intake and preference also depend on differences in how individual animals are built morphologically and how they function physiologically, and marked variation is common even among closely related animals relative to the needs for nutrients and tolerance to toxins. An integral part of an animal's ability to meet its particular nutritional requirements and consume substances that improve health depends on having a variety of foods available so each animal can select a diet that best meets its homeostatic needs. Food choice may also offer animals a means to cope with toxins, as certain food combinations have the potential to ameliorate the negative effects of toxins. We suggest that the availability of alternatives may not only contribute to maintain homeostasis but also reduce levels of stress. Thus, food choice is necessary for individual animals to have freedom to express their normal behaviors. We contend this freedom enables the uniqueness of individuals to be manifest, thereby promoting animal welfare and performance and increasing profitability of the people who manage animals.     

Farm animal welfare research in interaction with society

Over the last 30 years concern about farm animal welfare has increased and has become a public issue in the Netherlands. Public discussion has stimulated research in this field, financed by both government and industry. Dutch society in general and consumers of animal products in particular, want to see high standards of welfare for production animals. Good animal welfare has gradually gained more impact in the total quality concept of the product. This will encourage scientists to continue to analyse the welfare status of animals and to come up with innovative solutions for the remaining problems. At ID-Lelystad much effort is put into farm animal welfare research. This research includes for example, the development of behavioural tests for quantifying and interpreting fear in cattle, investigations into the effects of dietary iron supply and a lack of roughage on behaviour, immunology, stress physiology, and pathology in veal calves, studies of the ontogeny of tail biting in finishing pigs and feather pecking in laying hens as well as evaluation of the welfare effects of automatic milking in dairy cows. The results of these projects contribute to concrete improvements in animal husbandry and expertise and support policy making and legislation. The animal industry as well as retailers should aim at the further implementation of this knowledge and to specify welfare standards to guarantee consumer acceptance of animal production.     

《家畜环境卫生学》课程内容的扩展

家畜环境卫生学是我国高等农林院校动物科学专业的一门专业基础课。我国畜牧业发展过程中畜产品安全事件层出不穷、畜禽公共卫生安全防御体系薄弱以及动物福利差等一系列问题极为突出,结合世界畜牧业发展注重环境保护和动物福利保障等方面的大趋势,必须对原有的家畜环境卫生学课程内容进行改革。本文结合我国畜牧业发展实际,将畜产品安全事件、畜禽公共卫生安全防御体系以及家畜福利等内容引入本科生家畜环境卫生学课程,以期培养具有现代先进养殖理念的新型畜牧业人才。     

Organic livestock production in Europe: aims,rules and trends with special emphasis on animal health and welfare

Organic farming in Europe has increased during the last decade but the market share is still relatively low with less than 3% of farmed arable land and an even smaller proportion of farm animal species raised in organic livestock production systems. In many aspects, the biological and ethological needs of animals in organic farming systems are better met than on conventional farms. Emphasis is placed on high standards in product quality, animal health and welfare. However, limitations due to the strict organic rules place high demands on management qualifications. Practical experience shows that organic livestock production is certainly no guarantee of good animal health and welfare. It is suggested to develop quality assurance programmes for process quality assessment to ensure a certain level of management standard. Epidemiological studies are needed to evaluate health risk factors for health and welfare problems in organic livestock production. The concept of organic animal farming can only fulfil the criteria for sustainability, if all requirements on animal health and welfare, together with product quality and ecological soundness, are strongly considered and controlled.     

Transgenesis may affect farm animal welfare: a case for systematic risk assessment

This paper considers (potentially) harmful consequences of transgenesis for farm animal welfare and examines the strategy of studying health and welfare of transgenic farm animals. Evidence is discussed showing that treatments imposed in the context of farm animal transgenesis are by no means biologically neutral and may compromise animal health and welfare. Factors posing a risk for the welfare of transgenic farm animals include integration of a transgene within an endogenous gene with possible loss of host gene function (insertional mutations), inappropriate transgene expression and exposure of the host to biologically active transgene-derived proteins, and in vitro reproductive technologies employed in the process of generating transgenic farm animals that may result in an increased incidence of difficult parturition and fetal and neonatal losses and the development of unusually large or otherwise abnormal offspring (large offspring syndrome). Critical components of a scheme for evaluating welfare of transgenic farm animals are identified, related to specific characteristics of transgenic animals and to factors that may interact with the effects of transgenesis. The feasibility of an evaluation of welfare of transgenic farm animals in practice is addressed against the background of the objectives and conditions of three successive stages in a long-term transgenic program. Concrete steps with regard to breeding and testing of transgenic farm animals are presented, considering three technologies to generate transgenic founders: microinjection, electroporation and nuclear transfer, and gene targeting including gene knockout. The proposed steps allow for unbiased estimations of the essential treatment effects, including hemi- and homozygous transgene effects as well as effects of in vitro reproductive technologies. It is suggested that the implementation of appropriate breeding and testing procedures should be accompanied by the use of a comprehensive welfare protocol, specifying which parameters to monitor, at which stages of the life of a farm animal, and in how many animals. Some prerequisites and ideas for such a protocol are given. It is anticipated that systematic research into the welfare of farm animals involved in transgenesis will facilitate the use of the safest experimental protocols as well as the selection and propagation of the healthiest animals and, thereby, enable technological progress that could be ethically justified.     

The need for a veterinary antibiotic policy.

The international recognition of the 'stable to table' approach to food safety emphasises the need for appropriate and safe use of antibiotics in animal production. An appropriate use of antibiotics for food animals will preserve the long-term efficacy of existing antibiotics, support animal health and welfare and limit the risk of transfer of antibiotic resistance to humans. Furthermore, it may promote consumer confidence in the veterinary use of antibiotics. In advancing these arguments, the authors of this article argue that there is a need for a visible and operational policy for veterinary use of antibiotics, paying particular attention to the policies that are being developed in Denmark.     

Board-invited review: the ethical and behavioral bases for farm animal welfare legislation

Concerns about farm animal welfare vary among individuals and societies. As people increasingly consider the values underlying current farm animal production methods, farm animal welfare policy debates have escalated. Recent food animal protection policies enacted in the European Union have fueled highly contentious discussions about the need for similar legislative activity in the United States. Policymakers and scientists in the United States are apprehensive about the scientific assessment, validation, and monitoring of animal welfare, as well as the unforeseen consequences of moving too hastily toward legislating farm animal welfare. The potential impact of such legislation on producers, food prices, animals, and concerned citizens must also be considered. Balancing the interests of all stakeholders has therefore presented a considerable challenge that has stymied US policymaking. In this review, we examine the roles of ethics and science in policy decisions, discuss how scientific knowledge relative to animal behavior has been incorporated into animal welfare policy, and identify opportunities for additional refinement of animal welfare science that may facilitate ethical and policy decisions about animal care.     

Enhancing livestock through genetic engineering--recent advances and future prospects

Transgenic technology allows for the stable introduction of exogenous genetic information into livestock genomes. With its ability to enhance existing or introduce entirely novel characteristics at unprecedented magnitude and speed this emerging technology is expected to have a profound impact on the genetic improvement of livestock in the future. The continual advances in animal genomics towards the identification of genes that influence livestock production traits and impact on human health will increase its ability and versatility for the purposeful modification of livestock animals to enhance their welfare, produce superior quality food and biomedical products and reduce the environmental impact of farming. In contrast to biomedicine, which has so far been the main driver for this technology platform, the potential opportunities for animal agriculture are more challenging because of the greater demands on cost, efficiency, consumer acceptance and relative value of the product. While various transgenic concepts for the genetic improvement of livestock animals for agriculture are being evaluated the integration of this technology into practical farming systems remains some distance in the future.     

Characterization of transgenic livestock production

The objective of transgenic livestock improvement projects is to develop and bring to market superior breeding stock, as well as germplasm for the artificial insemination and embryo transfer industries. Livestock animal biotechnology programs hold the promise of achieving, in a single generation, improvements in commercially important livestock species previously possible only through long-term traditional selective breeding practices or by chance mutation. Transgenic farm animals harboring growth hormone or metabolically related structural genes have been created. Studies of these animals demonstrate the effects of inadequate regulation of transgene expression. Research continues to explore the intricacies of developmental regulation of such genes and phenotypic consequences of mammalian gene transfer. Ultimately, genetically engineered livestock will provide producers with the benefit of increased production efficiencies while the consumer will have healthier animal food products. Conceivably, products will be produced with lower levels of fat, cholesterol, feed additives and pharmaceutical residues from animals with altered carcass composition that will result in greater nutritional benefit for the consumer.     

The importance of applied ethology for the execution of animal welfare legislation]

Applied ethology in general and farm animal ethology in particular have a great importance in connection with animal welfare regulations on a national and international level. They have through the legislation on animal welfare brought about important repercussions on housing of farm animals, wild animals and experimental animals in Switzerland. The animal welfare legislation has been a considerable boost to scientific research. The application of ethological knowledge in the legislation and in practice has indeed also its limits. The importance of applied ethology for animal welfare and for animal husbandry will still increase in future.     

Review of human-animal interactions and their impact on animal productivity and welfare

Humans and animals are in regular and at times close contact in modern intensive farming systems. The quality of human-animal interactions can have a profound impact on the productivity and welfare of farm animals. Interactions by humans may be neutral, positive or negative in nature. Regular pleasant contact with humans may result in desirable alterations in the physiology, behaviour, health and productivity of farm animals. On the contrary, animals that were subjected to aversive human contact were highly fearful of humans and their growth and reproductive performance could be compromised. Farm animals are particularly sensitive to human stimulation that occurs early in life, while many systems of the animals are still developing. This may have long-lasting impact and could possibly modify their genetic potential. The question as to how human contact can have a positive impact on responses to stressors, and productivity is not well understood. Recent work in our laboratory suggested that pleasant human contact may alter ability to tolerate various stressors through enhanced heat shock protein (hsp) 70 expression. The induction of hsp is often associated with increased tolerance to environmental stressors and disease resistance in animals. The attitude and consequent behaviour of stockpeople affect the animals’ fear of human which eventually influence animals’ productivity and welfare. Other than attitude and behaviour, technical skills, knowledge, job motivation, commitment and job satisfaction are prerequisites for high job performance.