Timber harvest,damage to crop plants and yield reduction in two Costa Rican coffee plantations with Cordia alliodora shade trees

Both model and field estimations were made of the damage inflicted to coffee plants due to the harvest of timber shade trees (Cordia alliodora) in coffee plantations. Economic analyses were made for different coffee planting densities, yields, and both coffee and timber prices.Damage due to tree felling and log skidding should not be a major limitation to the use of timber shade trees in coffee plantations. The timber price that would balance all discounted losses and benefits to zero, for scenarios with and without trees ranged between 8–20 US $/m³ (current overbark log volume at the saw mill yard is US$ 66/m³). There will be lower margins for coffee damage in high yielding plantations, specially in years of good coffee prices. Nevertheless, the use of timber shade trees is recommended even in these scenarios.     

Optimizing Tapping-Tree Density of Rubber (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hevea brasiliensis</Emphasis>) Plantations in South China

Tapping-tree density in rubber plantations affects the production of dry rubber. Farmers can estimate rubber productivity when they know with certainty the number of tapping trees within a plantation and can therefore increase productivity through optimized planting schematics. Historical data on planting distance between trees and between rows, planting density (trees/ha) and tapping-tree density (number of trees under tapping for latex harvest per hectare) from 1952 to 2014 have been collected for plantations in the Hainan, Yunnan and Guangdong provinces of South China. A plantation survey was conducted to collect more detailed data on current tapping tree and planting densities in various plantations in the three provinces. Planting density and row spacing are found to have increased with rubber tree planting time and plant spacing to have declined from 1952 to 2014. Tapping-tree density of rubber plantations from 1955 to 1995 in South China ranges from 270 to 345 tree/ha, averaging 300 trees/ha. Strong typhoons and cold snaps are important drivers of fluctuations in tapping-tree density. The factors driving tapping-tree density are similar across the three provinces but the degree of change differs between provinces. Tapping panel dryness (due to tapping beyond the natural limit of the rubber tree productivity), severe wind damage and cold damage are the major factors resulting in loss of tapping trees in plantations in South China. These results suggest that a combination of environmental management for extreme weather and targeted breeding could improve tapping-tree density in rubber plantation and therefore dry rubber yield per unit area.     

On-farm evaluation of the establishment of clonal rubber in multistrata agroforests in Jambi,Indonesia

Perennial tree crops are often grown in complex multistrata systems that incorporate natural vegetation. These systems contribute simultaneously to sustaining rural livelihoods and to the conservation of biodiversity, but their productivity is usually low. Introduction of high yielding germplasm, usually selected in monocultural plantations, is a potential way to increase productivity, but a critical requirement is that such plants can be established in a competitive multispecies environment. The establishment of clonal planting stock in the jungle rubber agroforests of Indonesia was explored through participatory on-farm research. The trial involved four farmers who grew clonal rubber trees in a total of 20 plots, constituting five replicate experimental blocks spread across four farms. Unexpectedly, vertebrate pest damage by monkeys (Presbytis melalophos nobilis) and wild pigs (Sus scrofa) was the most important influence on establishment, explaining almost 70% of the variation in rubber tree growth. The amount of labour invested in weeding was also positively correlated with rubber tree growth. Farmers generally decided to completely cut back vegetation between rows of rubber trees, including potentially valuable trees, rather than weeding within the rows and selectively pruning trees in the inter-row. Farmers thought that the inter-row vegetation would harbour vertebrate pests and compete with the clonal rubber, and they had access to fruits, firewood and other non-timber forest products from other land. Thus, contrary to expectations, when offered clonal germplasm, farmers opted to use plantation monoculture methods to protect what they considered a valuable asset, rather than maintain the traditional multispecies strategy they use with local germplasm. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Productivity of Southern Brazilian coffee plantations shaded by different stockings of Grevillea robusta

A field experiment was conducted from 1984 to 1994 in the North of Paraná State, Brazil (23°45′ S, 52°30′ W), to evaluate the effect of Grevillea robusta (grevillea) on interplanted coffee. Grevillea was planted in five densities (26, 34, 48, 71, and 119 trees per ha). Compared with open grown coffee, there was no decline in the yield of coffee under grevillea at densities of 26, 34, and 48 trees per ha; however, total economic productivity (including the value of both coffee and grevillea) was higher for combinations of coffee and grevillea at 34, 48, and 71 trees per ha. The severe radiative frost of June 1994 that damaged most coffee plants did not damage coffee plants interplanted under grevillea trees at densities of 71 and 119 trees per hectare. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Cacao-fruit tree intercropping effects on cocoa yield, plant vigour and light interception in Côte d’Ivoire

A major challenge for cocoa producers in Côte d’Ivoire is to seek alternative shade trees or crop associations to adapt their planting devices and techniques to the shortage of forests. The recent tendency developed by farmers is to plant simplified orchards combining cacao and fruit trees. An on-farm trial was set up in a 5-year-old cocoa farm to compare a cacao monocrop planted at densities of 1,115 trees ha^?1 with cacao intercropped with orange or avocado trees, both at 44 trees ha^?1. Observations were done on incident light received by the cacao, vigour, growth and cocoa yields. On average, the cacaos received 100 % light in the monocrop, 89.6 % under orange trees and 80.6 % of incident light under avocado trees. They yielded 64.0 pods tree^?1 year^?1 in the monocrop (equivalent to 2.54 kg dry cocoa beans tree^?1), 30.3 pods tree^?1 when combined with orange trees and 28.3 pods tree^?1 with avocado trees. The two combinations allowed cocoa yields equivalent to those observed in the region (0.58 kg dry cocoa beans tree^?1). Vigour and yield were very highly correlated with the incident light received. Both the yield and the incident light are a logistic function of the planting distance from the shade tree. The inflexion point of the logistic functions corresponds to the minimum planting distance between the cacao and the intercropped fruit trees. On this basis, we suggest that the cacaos should not be planted closer than 6.50 ± 0.2 m to the orange or avocado trees.     

Shade tolerance and suitability of tree species for planting in rubber plantations

The rapid increase in rubber monoculture in Xishuangbanna has resulted in extensive damage to its local ecosystem. To decrease the negative effects, the concept of the ecological-economic rubber plantation (EERP) system was proposed. The EERP entails intercropping rubber plants with other economically significant plants, which would not only decrease the ecological impact of the rubber plantation, but also maintain and potentially increase its profitability compared with rubber monocultures. In order to select the appropriate species and intercropping pattern in the EERP system, we compared the photosynthetic parameters of five economically important trees (Swietenia mahagoni, Coffea arabica, Mesua ferrea, Myristica yunnanensis and Paramichelia baillonii) under four irradiance levels. The optimal irradiance intensity of C. arabica and M. yunnanensis was approximately 40%, and these species can be planted in the understory of an 8- to 15-year-old rubber forest. Adult S. mahagoni, M. ferrea and P. baillonii grow taller than the rubber trees, and their seedlings also show superior performance in 100% irradiance than in other irradiances. Thus, in an EERP, these valuable trees could be planted adjacent to rubber plantations but on sites that are economically and environmentally marginal for rubber production.     

Above- and belowground biomass,nutrient and carbon stocks contrasting an open-grown and a shaded coffee plantation

Coffee (Coffea canephora var robusta) is grown in Southwestern Togo under shade of native Albizia adianthifolia as a low input cropping system. However, there is no information on carbon and nutrient cycling in these shaded coffee systems. Hence, a study was conducted in a mature coffee plantation in Southwestern Togo to determine carbon and nutrient stocks in shaded versus open-grown coffee systems. Biomass of Albizia trees was predicted by allometry, whereas biomass of coffee bushes was estimated through destructive sampling. Above- and belowground biomass estimates were respectively, 140 Mg ha⁻¹ and 32 Mg ha⁻¹ in the coffee–Albizia association, and 29.7 Mg ha⁻¹ and 18.7 Mg ha⁻¹ in the open-grown system. Albizia trees contributed 87% of total aboveground biomass and 55% of total root biomass in the shaded coffee system. Individual coffee bushes consistently had higher biomass in the open-grown than in the shaded coffee system. Total C stock was 81 Mg ha⁻¹ in the shaded coffee system and only 22.9 Mg ha⁻¹ for coffee grown in the open. Apart from P and Mg, considerable amounts of major nutrients were stored in the shade tree biomass in non-easily recyclable fractions. Plant tissues in the shaded coffee system had higher N concentration, suggesting possible N fixation. Given the potential for competition between the shade trees and coffee for nutrients, particularly in low soil fertility conditions, it is suggested that the shade trees be periodically pruned in order to increase organic matter addition and nutrient return to the soil. An erratum to this article can be found at     

The potential for increasing rubber production by matching tapping intensity to leaf area index

Understanding resource capture can help design appropriate species combinations, planting designs and management. Leaf area index (LAI) and its longevity are the most important factors defining dry matter production and thus growth and productivity. The ecophysiological modifications and yield of rubber (Hevea spp.) in an agroforestry system (AFS) with beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were studied. The experiment was established in Southeast-Brazil, with three rubber cultivars: IAN 3087, RRIM 600 and RRIM 527. The AFS comprised double rows of rubber trees along with beans sown in autumn and winter seasons in 1999. There was about 50% higher rubber yield per tree in the AFS than the rubber monoculture. Trees within the AFS responded to higher solar radiation availability with higher LAI and total foliage area, allowing its greater interception. All three cultivars had higher LAI in the AFS than monoculture, reaching maximum values in the AFS between April and May of 3.17 for RRIM 527; 2.83 for RRIM 600 and 2.28 for IAN 3087. The maximum LAI values for monocrop rubber trees were: 2.65, 2.62 and 1.99, respectively, for each cultivar. Rubber production and LAI were positively correlated in both the AFS and monoculture but leaf fall of rubber trees in the AFS was delayed and total phytomass was larger. It is suggested that trees in the AFS were under exploited and could yield more without compromising their life cycle if the tapping system was intensified. This shows how knowledge of LAI can be used to manage tapping intensity in the field, leading to higher rubber yield.     

Growth and yield of coffee plants in agroforestry and monoculture systems in Minas Gerais, Brazil

This research compared coffee plants (Coffea arabica L.) grown in an agroforestry and monoculture systems. Data were collected during two years, on vegetative growth, reproductive development, nutritional status and yield of coffee, besides monitoring air temperature and the tree growth. All trees in agroforestry system increased in growth, resulting in a reduction in the magnitude of the diurnal temperature variation and also maximum temperature. Coffee plants in agroforestry system had less branch growth and leaf production, more persistent and larger leaves, and presented earlier flowering, with a smaller number of productive nodes and flower buds, leading to smaller berry yield than plants in monoculture system. In both systems, the coffee plants showed adequate leaf nutrient levels, except for P and K. The yield of 2443 kg ha^-1 of coffee from the monoculture was greater than 515 kg ha^-1 of coffee from the agroforestry system.     

Scattered shade trees improve low-input smallholder Arabica coffee productivity in the Northern Lake Kivu region of Rwanda

In suboptimal conditions for coffee growth, the use of shade tree is usually considered beneficial to production. This study aimed to evaluate this benefit in the poorly documented East African smallholder Arabica coffee systems in optimal climatic but suboptimal management conditions. In a 4 year observational trial in 50 coffee farms, the association of shade trees and coffee generated an average 55 % cherry production increase. Neither delay in berry maturation nor buffer in alternate bearing patterns were observed, probably due to the low productivity of unfertilized coffee plants. Quality wise, the presence of shade trees did not result in an increase of larger green beans, but it reduced the proportion of altered and lighter cherries in 2009, a low production year. A shade species effect was detected through the positive influence of two non-leguminous shade trees, Persea americana and Ficus thonningii on production. The effect was correlated to greater canopy openness and increase in K soil content. In general, soil mineral content was not influenced by the presence of trees, but the legume species Inga oerstediana appeared responsible for a slight increase of total C and N soil content. It is concluded that in the small holder context of the Northern Lake Kivu region, the association of mature trees is beneficial to coffee production and can contribute to the improvement of producer’s income.     

Enrichment planting of native species for biodiversity conservation in a logged tree plantation in Vietnam

Decades of deforestation and over logging have created large expanses of degraded lands in many countries including Vietnam. Reforestation may offer one means of mitigating these processes of degradation while sustaining biodiversity conservation. However a lack of information regarding trees, in particular threatened tree species has been identified as an important limitation in being able to reforest for biodiversity conservation. In the current study, conducted in the Tan Phu “protection forest”, the investigation surrounds the feasibility of biodiversity restoration in a fast-growing plantation after logging. Twelve threatened and native species mainly belonging to the Dipterocarpaceae and Fabaceae families have been considered. Seedlings grown in a local nursery have been planted under the canopy of a 50 ha pioneer forest, with a distance of 5 m between plants and between rows. The experimental design consists of blocks, each one with a replication of a 16-tree plot for each species. Four years after plantation, the survival rate of seedlings is high (>70 %), except for Dipterocarpus costatus (<10 %). Growth shows possible inhibitions under a closed canopy but the mean annual increment is generally satisfactory. The early performance of the seedlings is promising to make this plantation a good example of biodiversity restoration. These results could enhance the reforestation efforts of forest managers and encourage them to use native tree species including threatened ones in order to restore a high level of biodiversity in tropical degraded forests.     

Possibilities of diverse rubber based agroforestry systems for smallholdings in India

Rubber growers in South East Asian countries are facing acute crisis due to the price volatility, sharp increase in cost of cultivation, increasing drought and declining soil fertility. With an objective to generate additional income and improve small-holder welfare by integrating diverse crops in rubber ecosystem, three experiments were conducted in Rubber Research Institute of India during 2001–2014 period. In one experiment, coffee, vanilla on Glyricidia standards, Garcinia and nutmeg were cultivated along with rubber without altering the planting design and density of rubber trees. Growth of rubber was significantly higher under mixed planting and yield was not influenced. Soil moisture status during summer and microbial population were higher in mixed planting system and soil nutrient status was maintained. Yield of all the intercrops was good during initial years. As the shade from rubber canopy intensified, Garcinia perished but vanilla and coffee continued to yield reasonably well. In another experiment, nine shade tolerant medicinal plants were evaluated in mature rubber plantation. All the medicinal plants established well and produced reasonable biomass, but the performance of Strobilanthes cuspida and Alpinia calcarata were comparatively better. In another study, it was observed that short duration vegetables like amaranthus and salad cucumber can be cultivated during the annual leaf shedding period in mature rubber plantations to meet part of the household requirement. The results showed that diverse crops can be integrated with rubber without any adverse effect on growth and yield of rubber. Crop diversification generated additional income, mitigated drought and sustained soil fertility.     

Allometric models for estimating aboveground biomass of shade trees and coffee bushes grown together

Allometric models for dominant shade tree species and coffee plants (Coffea arabica) were developed for coffee agroforestry systems in Matagalpa, Nicaragua. The studied shade tree species were Cordia alliodora, Juglans olanchana, Inga tonduzzi and I. punctata. The models predict aboveground biomass based on diameter at breast height (for trees), and the stem diameter at a height of 15 cm and plant height (for coffee plants). In addition, the specific gravity of the studied species was determined.The total aboveground biomass of the shade trees varied between 3.5 and 386 kg per tree, and between 0.005 and 2.8 kg per plant for coffee. The aboveground biomass components (foliage, branch, and stem) are closely related with diameter at breast height (r > 0.75). The best-fit models for aboveground biomass of the shade trees were logarithmic, with adjusted R ² between 0.71 and 0.97. In coffee plants, a high correlation was found (r = 0.84) with the stem diameter at 15 cm height, and the best-fit model was logarithmic, as well. The mean specific gravity was 0.52 (± 0.11) for trees and 0.82 (± 0.06) for coffee plants.     

Tree Quality in Agroforestry Systems Managed by Small-Scale Mayan Farmers in Chiapas,Mexico

Increasingly, plantations for food, fiber and wood, are necessary to provide a growing world population. Agroforestry systems become more and more important, however these systems usually develop in marginal conditions, limited land, restricted funding, occasional technical support and above this, there is limited documentation and evaluation of innovated traditional systems in indigenous and small-scale contexts, which challenge forest scientists. The aim of this research was to assess the quality of trees in plots managed by Mayan indigenous farmers who planted agroforestry systems with fine wood species to increase the value of land and labor in localities with highly-marginal social conditions in Northern Chiapas, México. Twenty oldest plots were selected within a group of previously established plots (eight with improved fallow, six with shaded coffee and six with maize crop associated to trees) where forest inventories were carried out in nested 100 and 1000 m²-circular plots. In all plots tree diameter, height, quality indicators and the incidence of the pest Hypsipyla grandella were measured. Trees in the maize-associated-to-trees system are favored by the practices applied to annual crop during the first 3rd–5th years, a period in which they are free from the interference of other trees and benefit from favorable light conditions, weeding and a higher intensive care from the farmer while shaded coffee and improved fallow have higher tree densities and a more closed canopy condition than maize associated to trees. In consequence, maize associated to trees shows 68.1 % stems with good form; shaded coffee and improved fallow averaged 40.5 and 39.7 % of good quality stems, respectively; improved fallow exhibited a greater number of suppressed trees than shaded coffee and maize associated to trees (p < 0.0001). In addition, maize associated to trees showed the highest proportion of trees with commercial value with 56.9 %, followed by improved fallow with 28.2 %, and shaded coffee with 11.8 % (p < 0.0001); the rest were trees with domestic uses. However, maize associated to trees significantly result with high incidence of H. grandella probably due to the crown exposure. Timber volume averaged 92.9 ± 68.9 m³ for improved fallow, 77.3 ± 24.8 m³ for shaded coffee, and 52.5 ± 39.7 m³ for maize associated to trees. The value of the fine wood represents increment in income, variety of products and self-employment for households. Nonetheless, improved fallow and coffee plantations might benefit from the elimination of competitors from larger trees to favor promising immature ones and pruning, while maize crop associated to trees might benefit from opportune pruning for controlling the stem borer as well as tree replacement to achieve long term replacement and harvesting.     

Variation in wood density and carbon content of tropical plantation tree species from Ghana

Most research on carbon content of trees has focused on temperate species, with less information existing for tropical trees and very little for tropical plantations. This study investigated factors affecting the carbon content of nineteen tropical plantation tree species of ages seven to twelve and compared carbon content of Khaya species from two ecozones in Ghana. For all sample trees, volume of the main stem, wood density, wood carbon (C) concentration and C content were determined. Estimated stem volume for the 12-year-old trees varied widely among species, from 0.01 to 1.04 m³, with main stem C content ranging from 3 to 205 kg. Wood density among species varied from 0.27 to 0.76 g cm^?3, with faster growing species exhibiting lower density. Significant differences in wood density also occurred with position along the main stem. Carbon concentration also differed among tree species, ranging from 458 to 498 g kg^?1. Differences among species in main stem C content largely reflected differences among species in estimated main stem volume, with values modified somewhat by wood density and C concentration. The use of species-specific wood density values was more important for ensuring accurate conversion of estimated stem volumes to C content than was the use of species-specific C concentrations. Significant differences in wood density did exist between Khaya species from the wet and moist semi-deciduous ecozones, suggesting climatic and site factors may also need to be considered. Wood densities for these plantation grown trees were lower than literature values reported for the same species in natural forests, suggesting that the application of data derived from natural forests could result in overestimation of the biomass and C content of trees of the same species grown in plantations.     

Assessment of tree diversity and above-ground biomass in coffee agroforest dominated tropical landscape of India's Central Western Ghats

The purpose of this study was to quantify the changes in tree diversity and above-ground biomass associated with six land-use types in Kodagu district of India's Western Ghats. We collected data on species richness,composition and above-ground biomass(AGB) of trees,shrubs and herbs from 96 sample plots of 0.1 ha. Totals of83 species from 26 families were recorded across the landuses. Tree species richness, diversity and composition were significantly higher in evergreen forest(EGF) than in other land-uses. Similarly, stem density and basal area were greater in EGF compared to other land-uses. Detrended correspondence analysis(DCA) yielded three distinct groups along the land-use intensities and rainfall gradient on the first and second axes, respectively. The first DCA axis accounted for 45% and second axis for 35% of the total variation in species composition. Together the first two axes accounted for over 2/3 of the variation in species composition across land-use types. Across the land-uses,AGB ranged from 58.6 Mg ha-1 in rubber plantation to327.3 Mg ha-1 in evergreen forest. Our results showed that species diversity and AGB were negatively impacted bythe land-use changes. We found that coffee agroforests resembled natural forest and mixed species plantation in terms of tree diversity and biomass production, suggesting that traditional coffee farms can help to protect tree species, sustain smallholder production and offer opportunities for conservation of biodiversity and climate change mitigation.     

孟家岗落叶松人工林标准树高模型的研究

利用理查德方程构建落叶松树高生长模型.以黑龙江省佳木斯市孟家岗实验林场落叶松人工林为研究对象,基于78块落叶松人工林标准地中100株样木作为解析木.根据地位级指数的定义对理查德方程进行推导,确定落叶松树高生长模型.在MATLAB技术的支持下,根据林分实际数据使用模型参数估计算法求得模型参数k和c的最优值.经过模型误差的检验,结果表明误差E ＜0.05,该树高生长模型可以用来模拟落叶松树高生长过程.     

Shade management in coffee and cacao plantations

Shade trees reduce the stress of coffee (Coffea spp.) and cacao (Theobroma cacao) by ameliorating adverse climatic conditions and nutritional imbalances, but they may also compete for growth resources. For example, shade trees buffer high and low temperature extremes by as much as 5 °C and can produce up to 14 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1 of litterfall and pruning residues, containing up to 340 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1. However, N₂ fixation by leguminous shade trees grown at a density of 100 to 300 trees ha^-1 may not exceed 60 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1. Shade tree selection and management are potentially important tools for integrated pest management because increased shade may increase the incidence of some commercially important pests and diseases (such as Phythphora palmivora and Mycena citricolor) and decrease the incidence of others (such as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Cercospora coffeicola). In Central America, merchantable timber production from commercially important shade tree species, such as Cordia alliodora, is in the range of 4–6m³ ha^-1 yr^-1. The relative importance and overall effect of the different interactions between shade trees and coffee/cacao are dependent upon site conditions (soil/climate), component selection (species/varieties/provenances), belowground and aboveground characteristics of the trees and crops, and management practices. On optimal sites, coffee can be grown without shade using high agrochemical inputs. However, economic evaluations, which include off-site impacts such as ground water contamination, are needed to judge the desirability of this approach. Moreover, standard silvicultural practices for closed plantations need to be adapted for open-grown trees within coffee/cacao plantations. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effects of biotic and abiotic factors on δ15N in young Pinus radiata

In a 12-year-old Pinus radiata plantation, three dominant and three suppressed trees removed by thinning were randomly selected, and needles, annual rings from basal stem disks and bark were collected and analyzed to study the relationships of climate, tree age, dominance and growth with tree δ¹⁵N. The high foliar N concentration (1.35–2.73 % N, dw) suggested that N was not limiting tree growth, therefore allowing plants to fractionate versus δ¹⁵N, leading to differences in δ¹⁵N among trees. Most wood δ¹⁵N_air values were below the δ¹⁵N_air natural abundance in the dominant pines (?2.43 to +1.69 ‰) and above it in the suppressed trees (+0.73 to +3.35 ‰), likely due to the access of dominants to exogenous N sources with lower δ¹⁵N_air than those of suppressed. However, no dominance effect was detected in δ¹⁵N_air of bark and needles that decreased in the order: buds (+1.20 to +2.44 ‰) > needles 1 year (?0.27 to +1.43 ‰) > needles 2 years (?0.97 to +0.41 ‰) > bark (?1.18 to +0.15 ‰). Compared with the soil N in the 0–15 cm layer (δ¹⁵N_air = +4.8 ‰), all plant material was ¹⁵N-depleted. Results suggest that seedlings and foliar buds have a less efficient system for N conservation and recycling, with higher losses. The linear regression models showed that both biotic (dominance and tree age) and abiotic factors (temperature in spring–summer and annual precipitation) are needed to explain the wood δ¹⁵N_air satisfactorily.     

Financial and economic analyses of agroforestry systems and a commercial timber plantation in the La Amistad Biosphere Reserve, Costa Rica

A possible method of protecting biosphere reserve core zones is to encourage transition and buffer zone activities which are compatible with the core and which provide sufficient returns to the human population to make entry into the core zone unnecessary. The AMISCONDE project is promoting block plantations and coffee/tree agroforestry systems to do this, but did not analyze their financial or economic feasibility. Unprofitable systems will not be adopted without subsidy and are not sustainable after a project ends. Analyses show internal rates of return exceeding 30% for coffee/tree combinations both with and without project subsidies. Coffee/tree systems have significantly higher returns than coffee without trees, reduce the risk from coffee price fluctuations, and reduce the need for chemical fertilizers. Returns from a block plantation of cypress are a small fraction of coffee and coffee/tree system returns, but still are positive and have the advantage of requiring much smaller initial investments. The systems analyzed seem likely to be sustainable and to contribute to project conservation and development objectives. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.