External skeletal fixation for treatment of comminuted fractures in wapiti: 5 cases

External skeletal fixators were used successfully to treat severely comminuted fractures in 5 wapiti.     

Hypernatremia in neonatal elk calves: 30 cases (1988-1998)

OBJECTIVE: To characterize hypernatremia in neonatal elk calves, including clinical signs, incidence, physical examination findings, and possible causes. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: 26 neonatal elk calves were examined; 4 calves were evaluated twice, for a total of 30 examinations. PROCEDURE: Medical records were reviewed for signalment, history, physical examination findings, results of diagnostic tests, and response to treatment. Hypernatremia was defined as serum sodium concentration > 153 mEq/L. RESULTS: Hypernatremia was diagnosed in 14 calves and was significantly associated with diarrhea, high WBC count, high anion gap, and high serum concentrations of albumin, chloride, creatinine, and urea. Hypernatremia was not significantly associated with survival, but high serum albumin concentration and rectal temperature were significantly associated with survival of calves. Animals given antibiotics and electrolyte solutions orally prior to evaluation were significantly more likely to die than those untreated. Dehydration was a common reason for evaluation but was not significantly associated with survival. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Hypernatremia was significantly associated with diarrhea. Treatment of diarrheic elk calves is often the same as that used in bovine calves with diarrhea; however, bovine calves are commonly hypo- or normonatremic. Our experience suggests that treatment protocols used in bovine calves are unsatisfactory for elk calves. The rate at which serum sodium concentration is reduced should be < 1.7 mEq Na/L/h to avoid development of neurologic signs associated with iatrogenically induced cerebral edema.     

Long-bone fractures in llamas: six cases (1993-1998)

OBJECTIVE: To determine clinical and radiographic findings, treatment, and outcome for llamas with long-bone fractures. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 6 llamas. PROCEDURE: Medical records of llamas admitted between 1993 and 1998 because of long-bone fractures were reviewed. Data collected included age, sex, type of fracture, method of fracture repair, and postoperative complications. The Fisher exact test was used to compare age and sex of the llamas with long-bone fractures with those of the hospital population of llamas. All owners were contacted by telephone to determine perceived postoperative problems and whether the llamas were able to perform as expected. RESULTS: Mean age was 160.8 days (range, 23 to 365 days). There was 1 male and 5 females. Fractures were more likely to occur in young llamas (< or = 1 year old) than in adults. Five of the fractures were attributed to traumatic episodes. Long bones affected included the tibia (n = 2), radius (2), femur (1), and humerus (1). Internal fixation with lag screws, plating, or both was performed on fractures of all llamas except 1; that llama was treated by use of confinement to a stall. None of the llamas had intraoperative complications, but postoperative complications were reported in 2 llamas. All fractures healed eventually, and clients were pleased with outcomes. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Long-bone fractures in llamas are uncommon. Several types of long bone fractures can be successfully repaired by use of internal fixation, resulting in few complications and minimal convalescent time.     

Tracheal rupture in cats: 16 cases (1983-1998)

OBJECTIVE: To determine causes of tracheal rupture in cats and the mechanism of injury. DESIGN: A retrospective study was conducted to identify cats with tracheal rupture. A second study was conducted to establish mechanism of injury, and a third study was conducted to determine volume of air needed to obtain an airtight seal when inflating the cuff of an endotracheal tube in a cat. ANIMALS: 16 cats with clinical signs of tracheal rupture, 10 cat cadavers, and 20 clinically normal cats that were undergoing anesthesia. PROCEDURES: Details were extracted from medical records of 16 cats with tracheal rupture (9 treated surgically and 7 treated conservatively). For the cadaver study, the trachea of each cat cadaver was intubated and observed during overinflation of the endotracheal tube cuff. For clinically normal cats, volume of air needed to obtain an airtight seal for the endotracheal tube was recorded. RESULTS: Most ruptures were associated with cats anesthetized for dental procedures. Clinical signs associated with tracheal rupture included subcutaneous emphysema, coughing, gagging, dyspnea, anorexia, and fever. Tracheoscopy was the method of choice for documenting tracheal rupture. Surgical and conservative management were successfully used, unless the injury extended to the carina. In the cadaver study, overinflation of the endotracheal tube cuff with > 6 ml of air resulted in tracheal rupture in 7 of 10 cadavers. For clinically normal cats, the volume of air (mean +/- SD) needed to obtain an airtight seal was 1.6 +/- 0.7 ml. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Overinflation of an endotracheal tube cuff may result in tracheal rupture in cats.     

Multilobular osteochondrosarcoma of the canine skull: 16 cases (1978-1988)

The medical records of 12 dogs with multilobular osteochondrosarcoma (MLO) and examined at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Colorado State University from August 1979 to January 1987 were reviewed. Medical records of 1 dog with MLO and 3 dogs with MLO examined at the Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph and the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, University of California, Davis, respectively, were also reviewed and included in the study. The mean age of affected dogs was 7.5 years, a single breed did not appear to be overrepresented, and males were affected as frequently as were females. All of the primary lesions affected either the mandible, maxilla, or cranium. Excision was the only treatment in 11 dogs, 2 dogs had radiotherapy in addition to excision, and 1 dog had radiotherapy and chemotherapy after excision. Twelve treated dogs had follow-up information available. Of the 12 treated dogs, 7 (58%) had local recurrence, with median time to recurrence of 14 months. Seven dogs (58%) developed metastatic disease after treatment, with median time to metastasis of 14 months. The median disease-free interval was 12 months, and the median survival time was 21 months. Excision with histologically complete surgical margins appeared to offer good opportunity for long-term tumor control. The role of adjuvant chemotherapy and radiotherapy in the management of MLO remains unclear.     

Abomasal displacement and volvulus in beef cattle: 19 cases (1988-1998)

OBJECTIVE: To assess signalment, history, results of clinical and laboratory testing, and outcome for beef cattle with a left displaced abomasum (LDA), right displaced abomasum (RDA), or abomasal volvulus (AV). DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 19 beef cattle with an AV, LDA, or RDA. PROCEDURE: Signalment; history; results of physical examination, diagnostic testing, and surgical exploration; and condition of the animal at discharge were obtained from medical records. RESULTS: Fourteen cattle had an AV, 4 had an RDA, and 1 had an LDA. Duration of clinical signs ranged from 1 to 21 days. Eighteen cattle had an AV or RDA; 7 were Brahmans, 12 were males, and median age was 10 months. Abdominal distention was observed in 11 cattle, heart rate of > or = 100 beats/minute was detected in 14, and the abomasum was palpable per rectum in all cattle in which per rectal examination was performed. Leukocytosis, neutrophilia, hyperglycemia, azotemia, hypochloremia, and hypokalemia were common laboratory findings. At surgery, 3 cattle with an AV or RDA had a ruptured abomasum. Of the remaining 15 cattle, 12 survived. CONCLUSIONS: Clinical course in beef cattle with an AV or RDA was more protracted than that typically associated with these conditions in dairy cattle, but survival rate in beef cattle that did not have rupture of the abomasum was similar to that of dairy cattle. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Abomasal displacement should be considered for beef cattle with abdominal distention. Prognostic indicators recommended for use in dairy cattle may not be useful for beef cattle.     

Humerus fractures in llamas and alpacas: seven cases (1998-2004)

OBJECTIVE: To describe treatment and outcome of humerus fractures in llamas and alpacas. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: Llamas (n=4) and alpacas (3) with humerus fracture. METHODS: Medical records (January 1, 1998-August 1, 2004) were reviewed for small camelids with a humeral fracture. Retrieved data were signalment, history, physical examination and radiographic findings, surgical and medical treatment, and outcome. RESULTS: Humeral fracture occurred in 7 of 38 (18%) camelids admitted with fractures. Affected animals were aged from 1 month to 3 years old. Fracture configuration included long-oblique (n=4), short-oblique (2), and Salter-Harris Type II fracture of the proximal physis (1). One adult llama was managed by stall confinement and surgical repair was attempted in the other camelids: fixation by screws inserted in lag fashion (n=3), intramedullary pinning and fixation by screws inserted in lag fashion (1), rush pinning (1), and bone plating (1). A Velpeau sling was used for additional support in 3 animals. All fractures healed but temporary radial nerve paresis occurred in 3 animals. Limb shortening and permanent lameness occurred in the llama managed conservatively. CONCLUSIONS: Humerus fractures in small camelids are amenable to surgical repair which may offer better long-term outcome than medical treatment alone. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Surgical treatment of humerus fractures should have a good prognosis in llamas and alpacas. In select cases, minimally invasive techniques, such as rush pinning or fixation by screws inserted in lag fashion are sufficient for fracture healing.     

Inflammatory bowel disease in horses: 11 cases (1988-1998).

OBJECTIVE: To determine clinical and surgical abnormalities in, and long-term outcome of, horses that undergo surgery because of colic secondary to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 11 horses. PROCEDURE: Medical records of horses that had undergone abdominal surgery and in which IBD had been diagnosed on the basis of histologic examination of intestinal biopsy specimens were reviewed. RESULTS: 5 horses were examined because of acute colic and 6 were examined because of chronic colic. At surgery, all 11 horses had edematous or hemorrhagic bowel segments suggestive of IBD. In addition, 6 horses had circumferential mural bands (CMB) causing constriction of the small (4 horses) or large (2) intestine. Intestinal resections were performed in 7 horses. All 11 horses survived surgery and were discharged from the hospital; 10 horses were still alive at the time of follow-up (1.5 to 7 years after surgery). CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Results suggest that IBD is an uncommon cause of colic in horses. Surgical resection of segments of intestine with constrictive CMB may relieve clinical signs of colic. Horses with IBD that had surgery had a good prognosis for long-term survival.     

Clinical and pathologic findings in donkeys with hypothermia: 10 cases (1988-1998)

OBJECTIVE: To describe clinical signs and clinicopathologic findings in donkeys with hypothermia. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 10 hypothermic donkeys. PROCEDURE: Information on signalment, history, physical examination findings, results of diagnostic tests, treatments, and necropsy findings was extracted from medical records of all donkeys with hypothermia between 1988 and 1998 and compared with information from medical records of all normothermic donkeys and hypothermic horses admitted to the hospital during the same period. RESULTS: Donkeys were more likely to be hypothermic than horses. The mean age of hypothermic donkeys was 6 years (range, 7 months to 11 years), compared with 4.2 years (range, < 1 month to 15 years) for normothermic donkeys; this difference was not significant. Ten of 12 horses with hypothermia were neonates; there were no hypothermic neonatal donkeys. At admission, 7 of 8 hypothermic donkeys were in good body condition and all hypothermic donkeys were weak. Six hypothermic donkeys were able to maintain sternal recumbency, 1 remained in lateral recumbency, and 3 were able to stand. Of the 10 hypothermic donkeys, 2 survived, 1 died, and 7 were euthanatized. Histologically, the thyroid glands from 4 of 5 hypothermic donkeys appeared abnormal and were similar to those of foals with hypothyroidism. During the months that hypothermic donkeys were admitted, there was not a significant difference in environmental temperatures on days of admission between hypothermic and normothermic donkeys. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Hypothermia is a problem in donkeys during cold winter months, and may not be secondary to other disease or related to diet or management.     

Ultrasonographic features of testicular neoplasia in dogs: 16 cases (1980-1988)

For 16 dogs with testicular neoplasia (n = 19 tumors), ultrasonography was performed to determine whether a correlation exists between ultrasonographic features of testicular tumors and cell type. The echogenicity of the tumors varied depending on the size of the tumor and whether the tumor had focal or diffuse distribution within the testis. The ultrasonographic characteristics of Sertoli cell tumors were variable, with no predominant pattern. This variation may be related to tumor size, because 6 of 7 Sertoli cell tumors were greater than 5 cm in diameter. Focal seminomas and interstitial cell tumors less than 3 cm in diameter had hypoechoic texture. Focal seminomas and interstitial cell tumors greater than 3 cm in diameter had mixed echogenicity. Tumors of multiple cell types were greater than 5 cm in diameter and had mixed echogenicity. In valuable breeding dogs with a small (less than 3 cm) focal intrascrotal lesion, testicular ultrasonography would be of benefit for localization of the mass to the testis or epididymis for subsequent biopsy. In dogs with intraabdominal neoplastic testes, ultrasonography may be of benefit in determining intra-abdominal metastases and invasion of contiguous structures.     

External skeletal fixation for stabilisation of comminuted humeral fractures in cats

Thirteen feline humeral fractures were stabilised using external skeletal fixation alone or in combination with supplementary devices. Eleven of the 13 fractures healed. Pins placed in the distal humerus should be angled to avoid the supracondylar foramen and radial nerve. An intramedullary pin in combination with external skeletal fixation is indicated for mildly comminuted reconstructable fractures. For severely comminuted humeral fractures, closed application of an external skeletal fixator may be preferable to open reduction and internal fixation to provide healing and is recommended as an alternative to amputation.     

Acute thrombosis of limb arteries in horses with sepsis: five cases (1988-1998)

A hypercoagulable condition and poor perfusion to distal extremities might occur during equine endotoxaemic or septic shock, which could cause thrombosis of limb arteries. In our review, thrombosis occurred in neonatal foals in association with gram-negative bacteraemia. In 3 older foals and adults, thrombosis was associated with inflammatory bowel disease, diarrhoea and toxaemia. All patients had been treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and i.v. crystalloid solutions. Two horses received i.v. hyperimmune plasma. A generalised coagulopathy was not suspected prior to clinical signs of distal limb necrosis, although thrombocytopenia occurred in 4 of the 5 cases at the time of, or shortly before, thrombosis. Thrombocytopenia, possibly due to platelets adherence to exposed subendothelial collagen, which induces contact activation of the intrinsic coagulation pathway, has been described in endotoxaemic horses and foals with gastrointestinal infectious or inflammatory diseases and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Activation of procoagulants by endotoxins, decreased blood flow to the limbs and endothelial damage, may have been responsible for a hypercoagulable condition leading to thrombosis in these 5 cases. The 3 enterocolitis patients may have had increased risk of thrombosis because of loss of antithrombin III, haemoconcentration and acidosis.     

Endoscopic examination of the choanae in dogs and cats: 118 cases (1988-1998).

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether endoscopic examination of the choanae resulted in diagnosis of various diseases in dogs and cats with signs of respiratory tract disease. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 91 dogs and 27 cats that had endoscopic examination of the choanae. PROCEDURE: Medical records were reviewed for endoscopy findings and results of examination of biopsy or cytologic specimens. RESULTS: 34 animals had neoplasia in the choanal region; in 26 animals, diagnosis was confirmed by evaluation of specimens obtained by endoscopy. Five dogs with neoplasia had an erroneous diagnosis of rhinitis made on the basis of evaluation of specimens obtained by endoscopy. Six dogs and 2 cats had foreign objects in the choanae; 7 foreign objects were removed endoscopically, whereas 1 required nasal flushing. Results of endoscopy and biopsy of the choanae provided diagnosis of cryptococcosis and aspergillosis, but did not aid in the diagnosis of pythiosis or nasal mites. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Endoscopic examination of the choanae may assist in rapid diagnosis of nasal neoplasms, foreign objects, and certain infectious organisms.     

Nonsurgical treatment of suprascapular nerve injury in horses: 8 cases (1988-1998).

OBJECTIVE: To determine the outcome of horses with suprascapular nerve injury treated with stall rest alone. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: 8 horses. PROCEDURE: Information on signalment, history, limbs affected, severity of lameness, degree of muscle atrophy, gait abnormalities, and results of radiography and electromyography was obtained from medical records. All horses were treated with stall rest. Follow-up information on severity of lameness, gait abnormalities, degree of muscle atrophy, time between injury and resolution of gait abnormalities, and outcome was obtained during reexamination at the hospital or through telephone conversations with owners. RESULTS: In 4 horses, the injury was a result of trauma; in the other 4, the injury was suspected to be a result of trauma. All horses had pronounced instability of the shoulder joint during the weight-bearing phase. Follow-up information was available for 7 horses. Shoulder joint instability resolved in all 7 horses within 3 to 12 months (mean, 7.4 months) after the original injury. Two horses had complete return of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscle mass 15 and 18 months after the injury. Two horses used as broodmares before the injury and 4 of 5 horses used for riding or in race training before the injury were able to return to preinjury activities. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Horses with suprascapular nerve injury treated with stall rest alone have a good prognosis for recovery of normal gait and return to performance; however, the recovery period may be prolonged.     

Mesothelioma in cattle: eight cases (1970-1988)

Over an 8-year period, 8 beef cattle with mesothelioma were admitted to the Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine and the Louisiana State School of Veterinary Medicine. Diagnosis was confirmed by histologic examination of affected tissues. Five bulls, 1 steer, and 2 cows were affected. Four of the bulls had scrotal swelling; 2 cows and 1 bull had ventral abdominal swelling. The peritoneal cavity was involved in 5 cases, the pleural cavity was affected in 2 cases, and in 2 cases, disease was apparently confined to the vaginal cavity. Of the 8 cattle, 6 died or were euthanatized; only cattle with tumor apparently confined to the vaginal cavity survived.     

Uroperitoneum in the hospitalised equine neonate: retrospective study of 31 cases, 1988-1997

Historical, physical and diagnostic data were reviewed retrospectively in 31 equine neonates with uroperitoneum. Gender predilection was not observed, and classic electrolyte abnormalities were seen in less than 50% of the cases. Aetiologies for uroperitoneum have been well described, but this review found that septicaemia/severe illness played a crucial role the outcome of uroperitoneum. Approximately half the individuals with uroperitoneum had positive sepsis scores. Foals receiving fluid therapy were more likely to be septic and to have normal electrolyte concentrations. Ultrasonographic findings, serum creatinine and serum:peritoneal creatinine ratios were not affected by previous fluid therapy and were invaluable aids in the diagnosis of uroperitoneum, even with multisystemic disease such as sepsis.     

Tracheostomy in cats: 23 cases (1998-2006)

Tracheostomies can be used to provide a patent airway in animals with upper airway obstruction but have been reported to be more difficult to manage in cats than in other animals. The purpose of this study is to retrospectively describe the indications, complications and outcome of cats undergoing tracheostomy. Twenty-three cats underwent tracheostomy for laryngeal mass (n=13), trauma (n=5) and upper airway swelling (n=5). Major and minor complications were recorded in 10 and 17 cats, respectively. Seventeen cats were discharged to home, four cats were euthanased and two cats died in hospital. Complications with stoma healing were reported in one cat. Of seven cats discharged with a permanent tracheostomy, one cat is alive and six cats survived at home for between 2 and 281 days. Although complications are common, temporary tracheostomies can be beneficial for conditions in which the underlying cause can be treated. Despite risk of occlusion, permanent tracheostomies can be effective palliative procedures for cats with severe upper airway disease.     

Eclampsia in dogs: 31 cases (1995-1998)

OBJECTIVE: To compare clinical characteristics and laboratory findings of dogs with eclampsia with those of dogs without eclampsia. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 31 dogs with eclampsia (affected) and 31 with dystocia (controls). PROCEDURE: Information on signalment, type of diet, reproductive history, litter size, time from whelping to eclampsia, body weight, clinical signs, results of physical examination and hematologic and biochemical analyses, response to calcium supplementation, and recurrence was obtained from the medical records of all dogs with eclampsia evaluated between 1995 and 1998 and compared with information from medical records of 31 of 102 dogs with dystocia evaluated during the same period. RESULTS: Dogs with eclampsia weighed less, had a smaller body weight-to-litter size ratio, higher rectal temperature and heart and respiratory rates, and lower plasma total solids concentration than control dogs. Ionized calcium concentration was < or = 0.8 mmol/L for all but 1 of the affected dogs; median concentration for the affected dogs was significantly less than that for control dogs. Six (19%) dogs did not manifest typical clinical signs associated with eclampsia. Twelve (39%) dogs with eclampsia had previous litters; none had a history of eclampsia. Affected dogs were discharged from the hospital within hours after admission, but 3 dogs returned 1 to 3 weeks later because of recurrence of eclampsia. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Eclampsia develops primarily in small-breed dogs with large litters. Plasma ionized calcium concentrations > 0.8 mmol/L in dogs with clinical signs typical of hypocalcemia may indicate that other causes of clinical signs should be considered. In addition, some dogs with eclampsia may have low ionized calcium concentrations and not manifest typical clinical signs.     

Screw fixation of accessory carpal bone fractures in racing Greyhounds: 12 cases (1981-1986)

Fractures of the accessory carpal bone in 12 racing Greyhounds were repaired by use of internal fixation with screws. All dogs had a sprain-avulsion fracture of the distal margin of the articular surface of the accessory carpal bone, where the accessorioulnar ligament inserts (type I). Two dogs had a second avulsion fracture at the proximal margin of the articular surface, where the palmar ulnocarpal ligament inserts (type II), and 2 dogs had a second fracture at the caudal end of the bone at the insertion of the accessoriometacarpal ligaments (type III). Fractures were exposed surgically, using a palmarolateral approach between the fourth and fifth accessoriometacarpal ligaments, and were repaired using 1.5-mm or 2-mm cortical screws. Eight dogs were evaluated radiographically to monitor fracture healing. Union of fractures, with bridging of the fracture gap, usually developed by 5 to 8 weeks after surgery. Follow-up evaluation after surgical repair was possible in 11 dogs; 10 (91%) returned to training or racing, and 5 (45%) of those won 1 or more races.