Application of Neutron Activation Analysis Technique for the Analysis of Soil Samples from Farmlands of Yebrage Hawariat,East Gojjam,Ethiopia

Farmers may not be conscious for their farmland＇s nutrients, soil organic matter, water and air because they simply concerned only for their labor availability and soil fertility losses. The composition and proportion of these components greatly influence soil physical properties, including texture, structure and porosity, the fraction of pore space in a soil. The soil of this farmland must be able to supply adequate amount of plant nutrients, in forms which can be absorbed by the crop, within its lifespan. Deficiencies or imbalances in the supply of any of essential elements can compromise growth, affecting root development, cell division, crop quality, crop yield and resistance to disease and drought. This study was conducted to fill this knowledge gap in order to develop economically vital and environmentally accepted nutrient management strategies for the use of soils in agricultural lands. The objective of this study is to assess the elemental contents and concentration of soil samples collected from farmlands of ＂Yebrage＂ using neutron activation analysis （NAA） techniques regardless of oxidation state, chemical form or physical locations. NAA is used to determine the elemental composition and concentrations present in a soil. The macro/micronutrient and organic matter deficiencies have been verified in agricultural soils through increased use of soil testing and plant analysis. The challenge for agriculture over the coming decades will meet the world＇s increasing demands for food in a sustainable way. Current issues and future challenges point out that as long as agriculture remains a soil based industry, major decreases in productivity likely to be attained ensuring that plants do not have adequate and balanced supply of nutrients.     

Effects of Elemental Sulphur and Farmyard Manure on pH and Salinity of Calcareous Sandy Loam Soil and Some Nutrient Elements in Tomato Plant

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of elemental sulphur （S） and farmyard manure on soil pH, EC and N, S, P concentrations of tomato grown in a calcareous sandy loam soil. For this purpose, a pot experiment was conducted in greenhouse conditions. Sulphur was applied at 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, 400 mg kg~ and farmyard manure at 0, 3 ton da^-1 to the soil. Three weeks after applications, tomato seedlings were planted and 8 weeks later, the plants were harvested to determine N, S, P concentrations and dry matter yield. Soil pH and EC were determined in the soil samples taken at 3 different periods. Effects of sulphur and farmyard manure applications were not significant on N, P concentrations and dry matter yield of tomato plant. S concentration of tomato plant was increased by sulphur alone. Soil pH was decreased and soil EC was increased in both 2^nd and 3^rd soil sampling period by the sulphur applications. As a result of farmyard manure application, soil pH decreased in the 2^nd soil sampling period but increased in the 3^rd soil sampling period. Also, soil EC was significantly increased in 1^st and 3^rd soil sampling period. Farmyard manure had no significant effect on S supply to tomato plant. The N：S ratio of tomato plant was decreased by sulphur alone. However, the sulphur with farmyard manure applications decreased N：S ratio in lesser extend compared to the S applications.     

Effects of Various Degrees of Antennal Ablation on Mating and Oviposition Preferences of the Diamondback Moth,Plutella xylostella L.

Using scanning electron microscopy, we investigated the distribution of the trichoid, basiconic, and coeloconic sensilla on the antennae of the diamondback moth （DBM;Plutella xylostella）. The trichoid sensilla were the most abundant sensory organ, and the male moth antennae host signiifcantly more trichoid sensilla than female moth antennae. Conversely, basiconic and coeloconic sensilla were found more frequently on female than on male antennae. We performed experiments with various degrees of antennal ablation and demonstrated that DBM antennae played a key role in the control of mating and oviposition. We found that neither oviposition preference nor mating behaviors changed signiifcantly when less than 1/4 of both antennae were removed. However, there was a signiifcant behavioral change when the antennae were ablated by more than half. As the length of the antenna was shortened, the successful mating rate decreased and mating peak was delayed. An otherwise consistent host preference for oviposition was eliminated when both antennae were completely removed. Furthermore, we found that the number of trichoid sensilla was positively correlated with mating rate and oviposition preference. However, the numbers of basiconic and coeloconic sensilla were not correlated with mating rate and mating peak, but highly correlated with oviposition preference. Taken together, our results indicate that antennal sensory information plays a critical role in the mating and oviposition behaviors of this economically important pest.     

Residual Effect of Long Term Application of Organic and Mineral Fertilizers on Selected Chemical Properties of a Savanna Alfisol

The residual effect of organic and mineral fertilizers on selected chemical properties of an Alfisol in the long term soil fertility trial established in 1950 at Samaru, Nigerian savanna was assessed. The trial was left fallow for fourteen years due to lack of funds. Topsoil was collected from plots that received three levels of cow dung （D）, nitrogen （N） and phosphorus （P） in all possible combinations. The soils were analyzed for selected chemical properties. Except for significant effect of applied P on available P, sole application of cow dung, N or P had no significant effect on all the measured soil properties. The interaction of D and P significantly affected the mean values of exchangeable Ca, Mg, K and ECEC in the range of 1.12-1.96, 0.62-1.11, 0.37-0.64 and 2.82-4.11 cmol/kg respectively. The most important results were the ability of the plot that received neither D nor P to significantly increase these parameters than the plots that received only one of the treatments. The results show that the fallow period has changed the effects of application of organic and mineral fertilizers on the soil chemical properties under continuous cultivation by modifying them towards those of a native savanna Alfisol.     

Density of Standing of Plants at Cultivation of Cauliflower Seeds in Uzbekistan

The results of researches aimed to establish the optimum growing space and density of standing of plants at cultivation of cauliflower seeds in Uzbekistan are stated in the article. Researches were spent in the suburb of Tashkent with a mid-early grade ＂Domestic＂. In experiences were compared 5 densities of standing （31746, 35714, 40806, 47620 and 57142 pieces/hectare） received at planting of sprouts with row-spacing of 70 sm and distance between plants in a row 25, 30, 35, 40 and 45 sm. Experiences were pawned in quadruple frequency with the area of an allotment 10 M2. 60-65 day sprouts were planted under film tunnel shelters on February 11-12. Film shelters were kept over plants till the end of March. Seed plants were grown up without formation. Experiences were accompanied by phonological control, calculation of leaves quantity, an establishment of average weight of a head, definition of quantity of the plants, which have given seeds, the account of a crop of seeds from a bush and of a unit of area. It has been defined that reception of seeds of a cauliflower at cultivation under film tunnels is quite possible in Uzbekistan. It is established that with representation of the big growing space the plants form more leaves, earlier and larger form the heads, develop the testicles acceleration and increase their seed efficiency. It has been revealed that the more plants thickness is, the bigger share of them does not give seeds. In this connection the greatest crop of seeds has been received at growing space 70x45 sm at which 31.7 thousand Pl/ha had been planted. It is proved that in the conditions of Uzbekistan it is possible to cultivate high-grade seeds of cauliflower with productivity of 127-147 kg/ha.     

Influence of Cropping Systems on Soil Properties in Semi-arid Conditions of Setif, Algeria

The effects of two culture systems, conventional and no-till combined the previous crop （lentil and wheat） on soil properties were studied in the experimental site of the station Technical Institute for Field Crops （ITGC） Setif （Algeria） during the crop year 2011/2012. The results indicate that the no-till system affects positively the variables of soil properties and the organic matter has a rate of 2.89% compared to 2.44% in conventional tillage. If the conventional system has an infiltration of moisture relatively higher than that observed for no-till throughout the cycle, the no-tillage is distinguished by a higher storage of moisture at the end of cycle wheat cultivation. The results also indicate that the density （1.44 g/cm）, permeability （22.79 cm/h） and soil compaction （12.51 kg/cm） in no-till were significantly higher compared to conventional tillage 1.35 g/cm, 14.13 cm/h, 7.40 kg/cm, respectively.     

Under-Winter Sowings of Red Beetroot in Uzbekistan

The results of the three-year researches which had the purpose to establish an optimum depth of seeding at sowing and rational norm of seeding of red beetroot seeds at under-winter sowing in conditions of mid-loamy typical grey soils of the central climatic zone of Uzbekistan are stated in article. The researches were spent at statement of field experiences in quadruple frequency with the area of a registration allotment 10 M^-1. Crops were carried out in the first decade of December against mulching surfaces of ridges by humus and without mulching. Crops were carried out on ridges in width of 70 sm tape-two-lined with distance between tapes of 50 sm, between lines-20 sm and distance between plants in a line of 12-13 sm, at density of standing of 228-230 thousand plants/hectares. Experiences were spent with zoned in Uzbekistan multi-seedling grade of a red beetroot ＂Bordo 237＂. Experiences were accompanied by phenological supervision, biometric accounts, the account of field germination of seeds, density of standing of plants and definition of size and quality of a crop. Results of researches were exposed to the statistical analysis by a dispersive method. It has been revealed that at under-winter sowing of a red beetroot the effective way providing acceleration of shoots occurrence, formations of high-grade density of standing and increase of productivity of root crops is mulching the surfaces of ridges by humus. It is defined that optimum depth of seeding at sowing both at application of mulching and without it is the depth of seeding 4 sm. It is established that the most rational norm of seeding of the seeds, providing high-grade density of standing, is at cultivation with application of mulching 8 kg/ha, and at cultivation without mulching 8-10 kg/ha. Application of mulching the surfaces of ridges by humus, depths of seeding of 4 sm and norms of seeding of seeds of 8-10 kg/ha in conditions of under-winter sowing in comparison with cultivation without mulching and depth of seeding 2 sm and norms of seeding of 6 kg/ha provides an acceleration of receipt of fresh production of a red beetroot for 12-14 days and considerably raises root crops productivity. Application of agro receptions improved by us is the important reserve of acceleration of receipt of red beetroot early production and increase of its manufacture.     

Distribution and Identification of Ixodid Tick Species on Livestock in Northern Pakistan

Identification of lxodid tick species on livestock in two districts, viz., D.I. Khan and Lakki Marwat of Northern Pakistan were made during the period from March to November 2009 through animals＇ survey and questionnaire. The main tick species were Amblyomma （14.3%）, Boophilus microplus （l 8.5%） and Hyalomma anatolicum and H. dromedarii （67.2%）. Out of 3009 collected ticks, the highest number of female （88.7%） and the lowest of males （ l 1.3%） belong to Boophilus; the lowest number of female （92.4%） and the highest of males （77.5%） belong to Amblyomma. However, cows were more susceptible than buffaloes and camels ranked third to ticks infestation. Moreover, cows, buffalos, goats and sheep harbored mixed infestation （had more than one type of ticks）, however, camels and donkey harbored single infestation （had only one type of tick）. An emerging ethno-veterinary or traditional remedy is poultry keeping for ticks＇ elimination in Lakki Marwat. The results of this research will be helped in taking appropriate measures to reduce tick infestation and to improve management practices. Hence, it will help to increase farm productivity and farmers income.     

Investigation of Spring Waters to Assess the Geo-ecological State of Landscape and Soil

The purpose of the investigation was to assess the opportunity to use spring waters as indicator for the load state of rural landscape ecosystems. In the periods from 2000-2003 and 2011-2012, the physical and chemical water quality of 55 freshwater springs in the German federal state of the Saarland was investigated in monthly intervals. The catchment areas of the springs represented the prevailing geological formations in the Saarland as well as the main land use types such as forest, grassland and arable land. The results show a clear correlation between the nitrate content and the share of arable land in the closer catchment area of the springs. The problem of acidification and related processes occurs mainly at the sites with acid parent rock material and accordingly substrates deficient in lime. Very low pH-values between 4 and 5 are observed and the aluminum concentration levels are consistently increased. Especially at sites with low calcium content in the geological substrate, a progressive destruction of the clay minerals can be assumed. In the extremely acidic spring waters, which showed the highest aluminum contamination during the measurement 10 years ago, the aluminum-values decreased slightly. This indicates that the clay minerals in these locations are already completely destroyed. Thus, it can be concluded that the investigation of spring waters provides information on the geo-ecological conditions in catchment areas. By means of the multi-temporal approach, changes of land use or other influences by human activities can be detected.     

Probabilistic Model of the Brown Rat Control

We represent assessment of the rats control operator＇s actions, starting from the placement of rat control means （chemical, mechanical and others） in the object territory until the full its elimination and followed by assessment of the probability of rat population recovery. The probability of success is evaluated when using a combination of rat control means. We took into account changes in rat population occurring in different calendar periods of the year. The proposed calculation method can be used in training programs, as well as for the local forecast of releasing objects from rats and rats＇ re-settling.     

Evaluation of Essential Oils from Rosemary, Orange, Lavandula and False Yellowhead on Hatching and Motility of Root-Knot Nematode

Essential oils （EOs） from Rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis （Lamiaceae）, Orange, Citrus sinensis （Rutaceae）, Lavandula, Lavandula angustifolia （Lamiaceae）, False Yellowhead, Dittrichia viscosa （Asteraceae） and their major components were evaluated against root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogynejavanica. Second stage juveniles＇ （J2） paralysis and egg hatch inhibition were studied, while pulverized plant parts were tested for nematodes biological cycle arrest. All EOs paralyzed J2 and M. incognita were found more sensitive than M javanica with the EC50/4 days calculated at 250, 3,650 and 4,260 12g/mL for 1）. viscosa, L. angustifolia and R. officinalis, respectively. Similarly, all EOs inhibited nematodes egg hatch and D. viscosa exhibited the highest inhibition on egg hatch （100% inhibition at 5 μg/mL）. A significant influence of constituent terpenes （limonene, 1,8-cineole, linalool, camphor, L-borneol, caryophyllene oxide, β-eudesmol） dose and exposure time was indicated on egg hatch inhibition （56% to 100% at 500 μg/mL and 1,000 μg/mL）, while only β-eudesmol achieved paralysis of J2 and specifically against M. incognita （EC50/1d = 50μg/mL）. Interestingly, the most active botanical species arresting Meloidogyne spp. biological cycle in soil was C. sinensis （EC50 = 2 mg/g） and the most sensitive nematode species was M. javanica. The larvicidal and egg hatch inhibition activity holds promise towards the optimization of artificial terpene mixtures as novel and effective natural nematicides. Complex interactions of primary compounds and subsequent decomposition derivates compose efficacy profile of soil amendments.     

Cooking Quality Parameters of Rice Cultivars Grown in Spain

The quality office is complex and made up of many components such as nutritional quality, appearance, cooking quality and eating quality. The cultivar is one of the main factors that could affect to the grain quality office. The aim of this work was to analyze and compare the cooking quality parameters of six different japonica varieties of rice grown in Spain （Senia, Gleva, Bahia, Maratelli, Guadiamar and Bomba）. This work focused on the study of the cooking quality of rice, because it is one of the most important factors related to grain quality in Spain. It was evaluated using five characteristics： amylose content, gel consistency, degree of spreading, gelatinization temperature and pasting parameters. The amylose content ranged from 11.60% to 21.46%, with the Gleva cultivar having the lowest amylose content and with Bomba having the highest. The gel consistency varied between 5.44 cm and 9.81 cm. Regarding the alkali test, the Maratelli cultivar had the highest dispersion and transparency. Maratelli had the lowest gelatinization temperature （61.67±0.08 ℃）, and Senia had the highest gelatinization temperature （67.05±0.02 ℃）. Finally, the pasting parameters showed significant differences among cultivars with different viscosities.     

A Method of Purification of Bovine Colostrum slgA

sIgA in bovine colostrum was purified by ultrafiltration and enzymolysis methods in this experiment, and the prepared substance was detected by Western Blot. The purity and yield were up to 73.6% and 65.2%, respectively. This convenient technique offers helpful exploration for production of bovine colostrum sIgA     

Impact of Climate and Grazing on Biomass Components of Eastern Russia Typical Steppe

Spatial and structural characteristics of plant communities in the steppe ecosystems of the Baikal region, Russian Federation have been researched in connection with climate change and grazing. The present study, based on a total of 15 typical steppe sampling plots, investigated above-ground biomass （AGB）, below-ground biomass （BGB）, total biomass （TB） and root：shoot ratios （R：S） and their relationships with climatic factors and grazing. All biomass components varied widely depending on the climatic parameters and the degree of grazing affected transformation. A strong negative correlation between mean annual temperature （MAT） and total plant biomass was revealed for all study area. Mean annual precipitation （MAP） signiifcantly affected communities productivity increasing only in the south of the region. Due to the large and mountainous territory, the inlfuence of latitude and elevation （mountain） factors on the components of the biomass were studied. Although all studied plant steppe communities were transformed by uncontrolled grazing, their productivity is signiifcantly reduced only at plots with maximum digression. Vegetation shift is an indicator of climate change, as well as providing a diagnostic tool to build predictive models. Based on the complex index of effective precipitation, it was revealed that at the end of last century in the steppes of the Baikal region the structural and production processes will be affected by an arid climate trend.     

Effect of Season,Location, Cultivar and Spacing on Yield and Quality of Sugarcane in Western Kenya

In Kenya almost all sugarcane grown is under rainfall conditions that are planted in different locations during both long and short rainy seasons. Effect of season, location, cultivar and spacing on yield and quality of sugarcane is not clearly understood. The research was conducted at Kibos and Mumias to determine if the yields and quality of three sugarcane cultivars were affected by season, location and row spacing. Cultivars CO 945, EAK 73-335 and KEN 83-737 were manually planted during June and September in 2011. The trial was laid out as split-split plot arranged in a randomized complete block design （RCBD） replicated three times. Data collected at harvest, 17 months after planting （MAP） including cane yields, cane yield components and cane quality. The results revealed that cane length differed significantly between June and September. Stalk population and cane yields were significantly more at Mumias compared to Kibos. Cultivar EAK 73-335 showed significantly more cane yield （t/ha） than KEN 83-737 and CO 945. Both row spacing 1.2 m and 1.5 m did not affect cane yields. Brix%, Sucrose% and Purity% differed significantly between cultivars. The relationship between cane yield and stalk population was positive and significant, which indicated stalk population is a strong determinant of cane yield. The results showed that cane yield was significantly affected by location and cane quality by cultivars. Therefore Mumias is a better zone for sugarcane cultivation for both June and September seasons compared to Kibos.     

Comparison of Antioxidant Activity and Antioxidant Components in Lettuce,Onion and Tomato Obtained with Different Levels and Forms of Nitrogen Fertilization

The effect of N levels and sources on the antioxidant components in vegetable is not completely understood. Therefore, greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine the changes in antioxidant capacity diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl （DPPH） and ferric reducing antioxidant power （FRAP）, total phenolics, ascorbic acid, total carotene and lycopene contents in edible portions of lettuce, onion and tomato due to different nitrogen levels and sources. The experiment included three N levels （20, 40 and 60 kg/ha for lettuce trial and 60, 120 and 180 kg/ha for either onion or tomato） and four nitrogen sources （calcium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and urea）. The antioxidant capacity and phenolic contents in lettuce was enhanced under low nitrogen level, while the antioxidant capacities, phenolics, carotenoids and lycopene in tomato fruits were not significantly affected by the nitrogen dose applied. Application of calcium nitrate caused 50% increase in DPPH and 20% in FRAP of lettuce compared to other nitrogen forms. Tomato treated with calcium nitrate or ammonium sulphate had higher phenolic and ascorbic acid contents than treated plants with ammonium nitrate or urea. Antioxidant tested parameters of onion were not significantly affected by the nitrogen treatments. Nitrogen concentration in tomato fruits significantly correlated with FRAP antioxidant capacity, phenolics, ascorbic acid, carotene and lycopene contents.     

Some Engineering Properties of Sunflower Seed and Its Kernel

Some engineering properties of sunflower seed and its kernel, Shahroodi variety as a case study, were investigated at various moisture content levels （3-14% d.b.） for three size categories （large, medium and small）. With increase of moisture content from 3 to 14% d.b., all the main dimensions （length, width and thickness）, geometric mean diameter, porosity, true density, terminal velocity and static coefficient of friction increased while bulk density and rupture force for both sunflower seed and its kernel decreased for all size categories. The results showed that the highest value of static coefficient of friction for both seed and kernel was on the rubber surface, followed by plywood, polyethylene, galvanized iron, and finally aluminium surfaces. The seeds required less compressive force to dehull when loaded under the horizontal as compared to the vertical orientation. But for kernels, the trend was the opposite. Also, the compressive forces needed to initiate rupture of sunflower seed hulls were higher （47.1-94.72 N） than those required to rupture the kernel （8.5-13.4 N） in both orientations.     

Microbial Solubilization of Phosphorus from Nano Rock Phosphate

Phosphorus （P） is a major growth-limiting nutrient, and unlike the case of nitrogen （N）, there is no large atmospheric source that can be made biologically available. Moreover, P governs crucial role in plant as it stimulates root development and growth, gives plant rapid and vigorous start leading to better tillering and essential for many metabolic processes for seed formation. Soil microbes play very important role in bio-weathering and biodegradation. The microorganisms produce low molecular mass organic acids, which attack the phosphate structure and transform phosphorus from non-utilizable to the utilizable for the plants form. The test of the relative efficiency of isolated strains is carried out by selecting the microorganisms that are capable of producing a halo/clear zone on a plate owing to the production of organic acids into the surrounding medium. It is a well-known fact that as the particle size of rock phosphate decreases, the microbe mediated solubilization of rock phosphate increases in soil. In the present investigation, microbial solubilization of nano rock phosphate （〈 100 nm） particles was studied. Experimental results revealed that Pseudomonas striata solubilized 11.45% of the total P after 24 h of incubation from nano rock phosphate particles while 28.95% and 21.19% of the total P was solubilized by Aspergillus niger （black pigmented） and Aspergillus niger （green pigmented）, respectively. It was also observed that Aspergillus niger has the higher ability to dissolve Udaipur rock phosphate than Pseudomonas striata.     

The Relative Contribution of Non-Foliar Organs of Cotton to Yield and Related Physiological Characteristics Under Water Deficit

Water deficit is one of the most important causes of decreased yield in cultivated plants. Non-foliar green organs in cotton play an important role in yield formation at the late growth stage. Although better photosynthetic performance was observed in a non-foliar organ （bract） compared with leaves under water deficit. However, the physiological response of each organ in cotton to water deficit has not been comprehensively studied in relation to the water status and photosynthesis characteristics. We studied the maintenance of water status of each organ in cotton by measuring their relative water content, proline content and stomatal characteristics. Water deficit significantly decreased the surface area of each organ, but to a lesser extent in non-foliar organs. Our results showed that the relative contribution of biomass accumulation of non-foliar organs increased under water deficit. Non-foliar organs （bracts and capsule wall） showed less ontogenetic decrease in O2 evolution capacity and in RuBPC activity （per dry weight） as well as better antioxidant systems than leaves at various days after anthesis. We conclude that the photosynthesis from non-foliar organs is important for increasing cotton yield especially under water deficit conditions.