Gingers of Manipur: diversity and potentials as bioresources

The gingers are well-known for their medicinal and economic significance and occur chiefly in the tropical regions of the world mainly in the Indo-Malaysian area of Asia. From Manipur in northeast India, 33 species under 9 genera have been collected from different parts of the State. Collected specimens were planted in the Experimental Field of the Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University. The morphological details of the various species were worked out. The characteristic features of the specimen, their traditional uses, anti-oxidant compounds present and biological activities are described. The identified genera are Alpinia (3 spp.), Amomum (5 spp.), Boesenbergia (1 sp.), Curcuma (10 spp.), Elettaria (1 sp.), Hedychium (7 spp. and 1 variety), Kaempferia (2 spp.), Roscoea (1 sp.) and Zingiber (3 spp.). Of these, 26 species have been used variously as food (15), traditional medicine (21) and ornamental plants (9) by the ethnic people in their culture. Ten species have been identified to possess various bioactive molecules.     

Variable effectivity of three vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal endophytes in Hedysarum coronarium and Medicago sativa

Summary Plants of Hedysarum coronarium L. and Medicago sativa L., inoculated with Glomus caledonium, were grown for 6 weeks in soils with increasing amounts of available phosphorus (P). H. coronarium showed no or very low levels of infection even at very low soil P content (4 ppm), while in M. sativa the highest soil P level (20 ppm) was associated with the lowest percentage of infection. Medicago sativa and H. coronarium grown for 16 weeks in a sandy soil showed clear effects of Glomus inoculation on shoot growth and P uptake. In M. sativa inoculation increased shoot growth and P uptake in all treatments considerably, while the P concentration in the shoot was depressed by G. caledonium. In H. coronarium inoculation with G. mosseae and G. occultum had only a modest impact on shoot growth; G. caledonium even depressed shoot growth significantly. Glomus inoculation had a positive impact on the P concentrations in the shoots of H. coronarium. The growth-depressing effect of G. caledonium on H. coronarium is discussed.     

SCAR markers that discriminate between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dasypyrum</Emphasis> species and cytotypes

Dasypyrum is a genus with two species, an annual diploid Dasypyrum villosum and a perennial diploid or tetraploid D. breviaristatum. It is difficult to distinguish between the two, especially for a non-taxonomist. In this paper we demonstrate how to distinguish between the two species and between the two ploidy levels of D. breviaristatum. We achieve this using RAPD analysis to identify potential candidates for marker development and after carrying out principal component analyses and partitioning of genetic variance, developed SCARs and an identification key.     

Collection and evaluation of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lilium</Emphasis> resources in Northeast China

Northeast China is known as an important distribution region of the genus Lilium, with ten native species reported among the 55 species found in the whole country so far. This paper is about the distribution, collection, classification and evaluation of the Lilium germplasm collected from this area. The accessions were identified and classified into six species and three variants, including Lilium lancifolium Thunb., L. pumilum DC., L. dauricum Ker-Gawl, L. cernuum Komar., L. amabile Palib., L. distichum Nakai, L. concolor Salisb. var. buschianum (Lodd.) Baker, L. concolor Salisb. var. megalanthum Wang et Tang, and L. leichtlinii Hook. f. var. maximowiczii (Regel) Baker. Nevertheless, the species L. callosum Sieb. has not been collected by now. Chromosome counts showed that L. lancifolium was triploid (2n = 3x = 36) and the other species were diploid (2n = 2x = 24). Besides L. distichum, chromosome number variations were observed in the root-tip cells among the other eight species. Haploid cells (2n = x = 12) were discovered in L. lancifolium. B-chromosomes were observed in L. lancifolium, L. dauricum, L. pumilum, L. concolor var. buschianum and L. concolor var. megalanthum. The analytic hierarchy process was employed to evaluate ornamental characteristics and potential utilization of nine identified species. It seemed that L. lancifolium, L. cernuum, L. pumilum and L. concolor var. buschianum had better ornamental value and utilization potential than others.     

Broad-spectrum antifungal metabolites produced by the soil bacterium Serratia plymuthica A 153

Chlorinated macrolides, haterumalide NA, B and NE, and a new haterumalide X, were produced by the soil bacterium Serratia plymuthica. Haterumalides NA, B and NE caused complete suppression of apothecial formation in sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum at a concentration of 0.5 μg ml⁻¹. Ascospore germination of this fungus was inhibited in the concentration range 0.8-3.0 μg ml⁻¹. Haterumalides NA, B and NE prevented spore germination of several other filamentous fungi as well as Oomycetes at concentrations ranging from 0.4 to 40 μg ml⁻¹, but did not show any effect against the yeast Candida albicans. Inhibition data could not be collected for haterumalide X due to its rapid conversion to haterumalide NA. The bacterium also produced two other antifungal metabolites: pyrrolnitrin and 1-acetyl-7-chloro-1-H-indole, which in contrast to the haterumalides, did not inhibit the apothecial formation on sclerotia. Pyrrolnitrin, and haterumalide NA, B and NE effectively inhibited spore germination of tested filamentous fungi at concentrations ranging from 0.06 to 50 μg ml⁻¹, whereas 1-acetyl-7-chloro-1-H-indole inhibited spore germination only at concentrations above 50 μg ml⁻¹. The minimal inhibitory concentrations of the respective compounds needed for total inhibition of spore germination varied for the fungal species tested.     

Diversity of 16S-rRNA and nifH genes derived from rhizosphere soil and roots of an endemic drought tolerant grass,Lasiurus sindicus

Lasiurus sindicus is a highly nutritive, drought tolerant, perennial grass, endemic to the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, India. In order to characterize the diversity of bacteria associated with roots of this grass that had survived severe drought stress, 16S-rRNA gene clone libraries were established from RT-PCR amplified products of the total RNA extracted from the washed roots and rhizosphere soil samples. Eight major bacterial taxa were identified in a total of 121 16S-rRNA gene clones. The majority of sequences belonged to Gram-positive bacteria, Actinobacteria being the most predominant ones, closely followed by Firmicutes. Most of the sequences showed similarity with sequences from cultivated bacteria or uncultivated environmental clones associated with arid, semi-arid environments, cold deserts and contaminated soils. PCR amplification of nifH genes using total DNA as template produced a total of 48 nifH clones from the rhizosphere soil and root samples and revealed a predominance of nifH sequences closely affiliated to Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes, isolated in a previous study from root samples of Lasiurus sindicus. Some nifH sequences showed close similarity to cultivated diazotrophs like Azospirillum brasilense, Rhizobium sp., and a variety of uncultured nitrogen fixing bacteria. Thus, this study provides us with evidence that L. sindicus harbors a diversity of bacteria with potential for nitrogen fixation.     

Collection and evaluation of Primula species of western Sichuan in China

China is known as a major distribution center for the genus Primula, with a total account of 300 species out of the 430 species reported in the world. Western Sichuan is considered as an important area of diversity of Primula, approximately accounting for 40 % of the total found in the country. This paper focused on the distribution, classification, and evaluation of the Primula species collected from western Sichuan. A total of 29 species, four subspecies, and one variety were collected, identified, and classified based on their morphological characteristics. We also discovered some plants with different flower colors within the same species, which may be representative of new forms or ecotypes. Analytical hierarchy process (AHP) method through 14 indicator points was first used to evaluate the collected Primula resources based on their ornamental value, utilization potential, and ecological adaptability. The results indicated that P. denticulata subsp. sinodenticulata received the highest AHP scores making it the most potential species for sustainable exploitation. In addition, P. chionantha subsp. sinopurpurea, P. szechuanica, P. orbicularis, P. sikkimensis, P. hongshanensis, P. secundiflora, P. sonchifolia, P. polyneura, P. wilsonii, P. palmata, P. poissonii and P. watsonii showed better potential for exploitation than other species. This study also gave some suggestions regarding the protection and utilization of wild Primula resources.     

Taxonomic status and geographic provenance of germplasm accessions in the Solanum nigrum L. complex: AFLP data

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs) were employed within the taxonomically difficult Solanum nigrum L. complex in order to characterize the genetic diversity present in a collection of the Gatersleben Genebank, to classify taxonomically unknown material, and to correlate the clustering of the examined accessions with their geographic origin. The results from AFLP analyses using two primer combinations on 44 entries from five species led to the detection of four major clusters, simultaneously uncovering significant differences in the levels of genetic diversity within or between species. S. americanumexhibited the highest infraspecific variation despite close geographic origins, simultaneously being placed in a clearly separated cluster in comparison to the other examined species of the complex. In addition, these other species showed even less interspecific variation than was found at the infraspecific level in S. americanum. In terms of taxonomy, the application of AFLPs helped in the classification of 13 black nightshade accessions formerly only listed as Solanum sp. This also was confirmed by morphological determination. Furthermore, one accession formerly classified as S. physalifolium var. nitidibaccatum i) clustered with AFLPs and ii) was identified morphologically as S. villosum. Contradictory classifications remain for two further entries from the same species, found within the S. nigrum cluster after AFLP analyses, while belonging to S. physalifolium var. nitidibaccatum according to herbarium specimen. Finally, as indicated by the information on provenance in geographically separated subclusters in S. americanum and partially in S. villosum, clues on the currently unknown origin of accessions from the genebank seem feasible by AFLP data.     

Phytoremediation of Pb in the sediment of a mangrove ecosystem

Purpose

Coal-fuelled power plants can discharge hazardous materials, particularly heavy metals such as lead (Pb). An alternative way of reducing Pb concentration from contaminated sediments is through phytoremediation. Presently, there are few research findings on the phytoremediation potential of mangroves on metals like Pb. The study was conducted to survey and identify mangroves that thrive near the coal-fired power plant and to assess the phytoremediation potential of mangroves on Pb in sediment.

Materials and methods

The study sites were located in the mangrove ecosystems of Sitio Oyon and Sitio Asinan in Masinloc, Zambales, Philippines. The first stage of our study was to survey and identify the mangrove species. The second stage was to assess the levels of Pb in the sediments, water, and tissues of mangrove trees. The diversity assessment of the mangrove species was done through the use of 10?×?12 m quadrat technique. Water and sediment samples from each mangrove ecosystem were collected using composite sampling methods.

Results and discussion

Three mangrove species were identified in the study sites: Avicennia marina, Rhizophora stylosa, and Sonneratia alba. The order of importance of the mangrove trees in the two sampling locations, based on an importance value index (IVI), were as follows: SA (IVI?=?171.20)?>?AM (77.79)?>?RS (51.01). The total uptake of Pb from sediments near the power plants varied significantly (p?≤?0.001) among the three mangrove species. S. alba had the highest Pb uptake of 48.4 kg ha^?1 followed by A. marina (23.1 kg ha^?1), and R. stylosa (2.4 kg ha^?1). These three mangrove species have the potential to phytoremediate Pb in the sediment.

Conclusions

The three mangrove species present in the coastal ecosystem near the electric power plant—A. marina, R. stylosa, and S. alba—were potential phytoremediators of sediment Pb. The present study indicated that the mangroves possess beneficial characteristics that remove Pb from contaminated sediments in areas directly affected by coal-fired power plants, and thus have potential phytoremediation properties.     

Socio-economic and horticultural potential of Khirni [Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard]: a promising underutilized fruit species of India

Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard (Khirni) is a socio-economically important fruit and nut species of tribal population of tropical deciduous forests of western and central India. Survey and collection missions were undertaken to study the extent of variability and socio-economic importance of Khirni germplasm in diversity rich areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. A total of 99 accessions of this important tree species were collected from surveyed regions, of which 47 diverse accessions were selected for morphological characterization showing wide range of variation in agro-morphological traits. During the survey, sizable variability in morphological characters and high socio-economic potential of Khirni was recorded. Bark, fresh fruits and extracted seeds have high nutritional and medicinal value. Tree provides substantial livelihood support to local inhabitants as collected fresh fruits from natural populations fetch good price in local markets. Besides livelihood support species, M. hexandra contributes in the nutritional security of the women and children of this area by fulfilling the need of micronutrients and vitamin A. Due to the high market demand of fresh fruits and seeds and without any organized cultivation, pressure on natural wild populations is severely building up since last several decades and therefore, the genetic variability of this species is now facing a great threat and need immediate complementary conservation efforts. Based on higher diversity index and natural population size of this species six in situ conservation sites have been suggested for dynamic conservation in western and central Indian states and 60 accessions have been successfully cryostored.     

Untapped amaranth (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Amaranthus </Emphasis>spp.) genetic diversity with potential for nutritional enhancement

Significant genetic diversity was observed in 218 out of a total of 1309 accessions of amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.) and its seven wild relatives, A. spinosus L., A. dubius Mart. ex Thell., A. hybridus L., A. tricolor L., A. cruentus L., A. caudatus L., A. retroflexus L. for 24 nutritional parameters including total oil content, fatty acid profile, total protein content and amino acid profile. Diversity for total oil content (6.42–12.53%), linoleic acid (25.68–54.34%), oleic acid (21.97–42.01%) of the total fatty acids, total protein content (7.84–18.01%), among important essential amino acids; lysine content (0.66–11.12 g/16 g N), methionine (0.35–4.80 g/16 g N) and half cystine and (0.12–8.32 g/16 g N) was reported. The un-weighted pair-group method using arithmetic average cluster analysis based on pair wise Euclidean genetic distance grouped the accessions into seven major clusters. Histidine, half cystine, tyrosine, essential amino acids, total oil content, linoleic acid and oleic acid content were the major parameters contributing significantly to genetic diversity. Present findings indicate that significant diversity exists for nutritional parameters in amaranth germplasm. The promising accessions with higher multiple nutritive traits; protein content (>16%), oil content (>11%), lysine content (>7.5 g/16 g N) and EAA higher than the FAO reported values, were identified. This is the first report on detailed nutritional analysis of diversity collected worldwide. These could be used as potential breeding material for nutritional enhancement through genetic improvement. This will help in overcoming the “triple burden” of malnourishment, hidden hunger, and obesity.     

Traditional uses of medicinal plants for dermatological healthcare management practices by the Tharu tribal community of Uttar Pradesh, India

The aim of present study was to explore and document medicinal plants used for the traditional dermatological healthcare management practices by the the Tharu tribal community of Uttar Pradesh. The study was conducted during 2000–2004. Information was gathered from 230 informants residing in 46 villages in Terai region of Indo-Nepal boarder using questionnaires; oral interviews and group discussions. Total 92 medicinal plant species were cited for the preparation of 113 crude drug formulations. Voucher specimens of cited plant species were collected and identified as belonging to 82 genera and 49 families. Thirty-nine medicinal plant species were reported for the first time for dermatological healthcare problems from India. The dermatological healthcare problems managed were cut and wounds, ringworm, leprosy, eczema, scabies, leucoderma, boils, carbuncles, pimples, skin blemishes, spots, eruption, and burns etc. The most commonly and popularly used medicinal plant species for management of dermatological healthcare problems in the study area were Curcuma longa L., Azadirachta indica A. Juss and Melia azedarach L. It is concluded that dermatological healthcare management practice in the study area depends largely on wildly growing medicinal plant species. There is an urgent need to properly conserve the medicinal plant species growing in this area for human welfare. There is also need for further phytopharmacological studies to provide scientific explanation for the usages of 57 medicinal plant species for which to the best of our knowledge phytopharmacological literatures are not available.     

Collection and evaluation of wild tulip (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Tulipa</Emphasis> spp.) resources in China

China is known throughout the world as one of the most diverse centres of wild Tulipa L. resources. There are 17 wild Tulipa species distributed in China, and 12 species are only distributed in Xinjiang Province. In this paper, total 83 accessions were collected from Xinjiang, Liaoning and several other provinces. Their distribution, collection, classification and evaluation were described. According to morphological characteristics, they were classified into eight species, which included T. sinkiangensis Z. M. Mao, T. altaica Pall. ex Spreng., T. iliensis Regel, T. heterophylla Baker, T. buhseana Boiss., T. thianschanica Regel, T. schrenkii Regel and T. edulis (Miq.) Baker. Their phenotypic genetic relationships were analysed and showed that the eight Tulipa species were divided into two groups: Group I included one species T. edulis, and Group II included the other seven species. Bulb renewal was observed in eight wild Tulipa species; T. iliensis and T. edulis showed that one or more long fleshy stolons formed horizontally or vertically at the basal plate of the mother bulbs, new bulblets (dropper) appeared at the top of each fleshy stolon, and the mother bulbs eventually disappeared. The analytic hierarchy process was used to evaluate the ornamental value, utilization potential and ecological adaptability of the eight identified species. The results showed that T. iliensis, T. buhseana and T. thianschanica had better ornamental value and utilization potential than any other species. The distribution, collection, classification, and evaluation of wild Tulipa species could be helpful in creating novel tulip germplasms in China.     

On the occurrence,distribution and taxonomy of Cucumis setosus Cogn., an endemic wild edible vegetable from India

Cucumis setosus Cogn. is a rare, endemic, wild gathered or semi-domesticated vegetable restricted to Maharashtra state and border districts of adjoining states in India. Herbarium and literature survey shows that it is poorly collected and inadequately studied. Morphological characters, basic chromosome number and crossability barriers indicate that Cucumis setosus is a valid species, distinct from C. sativus and endemic to western India. Its morphology, basic cytology, crossability relationship with other Cucumis species, taxonomy, distribution, ecology, conservation, economic importance and viability under cultivation are discussed. Besides, a key to distinguish it from C. sativus var. hardwickii (wild and feral form of C. sativus) and other species having sympatric distribution in the area is also presented. Absence of bitter principle in the fruits makes it a potential germplasm for melon and cucumber improvement as well as direct domestication as a future crop.     

Biodiversity conservation and livelihoods in human-dominated landscapes: Forest commons in South Asia

Strict protected areas are a critical component in global biodiversity conservation, but the future of biodiversity conservation may well depend upon the ability to experiment successfully with a range of institutional forms, including those that permit human use. Here, we focus on forest commons in human-dominated landscapes and their role in biodiversity conservation at the same time as they provide livelihood benefits to users. Using a dataset of 59 forest commons located in Bhutan, India, and Nepal, we estimated tree species richness from plot vegetation data collected in each forest, and drew on interview data to calculate a livelihoods index indicating the overall contribution of each forest to villager livelihoods for firewood, fodder, and timber. We found that tree species richness and livelihoods were positively and significantly correlated (rho = .41, p < 0.001, N = 59). This relationship held regardless of forest type or country, though significance varied somewhat across these two factors. Further, both benefits were similarly associated with several drivers of social-ecological change (e.g., occupational diversity of forest users, total number of users, and forest size), suggesting identification of potential synergies and complexes of causal mechanisms for future attention. Our analysis shows that forest commons in South Asia, explicitly managed to provide livelihoods for local populations, also provide biodiversity benefits. More broadly, our findings suggest that although strict protected areas are effective tools for biodiversity conservation, a singular focus on them risks ignoring other resource governance approaches that can fruitfully complement existing conservation regimes.     

Conservation genetics and ecology of Angiopteris chauliodonta Copel. (Marattiaceae), a critically endangered fern from Pitcairn Island, South Central Pacific Ocean

Angiopteris chauliodonta, endemic to remote Pitcairn Island, was until recently thought to occur in only two small populations. Survey work carried out on the island in 1997 increased the number of populations to six, but as the total number of plants found was 774 (of which only 147 were mature adults) the species should be regarded as critically endangered. The species occurred in native fern-rich Homalium taypau and Metrosideros collina forest that was in many areas heavily invaded by Syzygium jambos and Lantana camara. RAPD analysis identified related populations but there was no correlation between genetic and geographical distance. The highest levels of genetic diversity was partitioned within populations (H_S=0.154; D_ST=0.116), although the larger populations were not necessarily the most diverse. Threats are primarily due to forest clearance, invasive species and erosion. Conservation management for this species will be through reinforcement of existing populations to maximise their genetic diversity and translocation of new populations to suitable habitats.     

Distribution and stand characteristics of relict populations of Mexican beech (Fagus grandifolia var. mexicana)

Fagus grandifolia var. mexicana (Mexican beech) is limited to about 10 populations (2-35 ha) in the Sierra Madre Oriental, Mexico. The objectives were to assess the current status and distribution of beech by surveying five sites. Species richness varied between three to 27 tree species in the canopy, and from nine to 29 species in the understorey. Basal area of trees?5 cm dbh varied between 27.87 and 70.98 m² ha⁻¹, and density from 370 to 1290 individual ha⁻¹. Beech represented 22-99.6% of total basal area, and 6.8-83.3% of total density. Beech dominance varied from monodominant to codominance with Carpinus caroliniana, Quercus spp., Liquidambar styraciflua, Magnolia schiedeana, and Podocarpus spp. Beech total population size ranged from 180 to 6300 trees with a total of less than 1300 individuals in four sites. Anthropogenic disturbance remains a major threat to these forests. It is uncertain whether Mexican beech will be able to survive without conservation efforts.     

Investigation and evaluation of the genus Lilium resources native to China

China is known as an important distribution center for the genus Lilium, with 55 species having been reported in the country thus far. This study was conducted to provide the first comprehensive evaluation of Lilium distribution in China. A total of 27 species of Lilium and 3 varieties were found to exist in the main centers of Lilium distribution in China; these species were identified and classified based on their morphological characteristics. The distribution and botanical characteristics of the various species are reviewed in this study. We also describe differences, mainly in flower color within the same species, which may be representative of new natural varieties or ecotypes. An analytical hierarchy process (AHP) utilizing 16 indicator characteristics was used to evaluate the collected Lilium resources based on their ornamental value, utilization potential, and ecological adaptability. L. dauricum received the highest AHP scores, indicating that it was the species best suited for sustained exploitation. In addition, L. henryi, L. rosthornii, L. tsingtauense, L. concolor var. pulchellum, L. lancifolium, and species with trumpet–shaped flowers also showed better potential for exploitation than other species. This study also provides references regarding the effective exploitation and use of wild Lilium resources.     

Geographic information system (GIS) predictions of past, present habitat distribution and areas for re-introduction of the endangered subtropical rainforest shrub Triunia robusta (Proteaceae) from south-east Queensland Australia

The endangered Australian subtropical rainforest understorey shrub Triunia robusta, is restricted to the south-east Queensland region of Australia. The potential pre-clearing and current distribution of the species was modelled by relating species presence at recorded locations to correlated abiotic and biotic factors, which in combination, were then used as a surrogate for predicting distribution of the species habitat over its known range. From a defined study area of 330,000 ha, output of geographic areas likely to contain T. robusta habitat at three levels of probability were generated for pre-clearing vegetation, and vegetation classified as remnant in 1999. Potential pre-clearing distribution was compared with potential current distribution to ascertain the likely impact of clearing of native vegetation on the extent, pattern, and contiguity of T. robusta habitat. For pre-clearing vegetation, a total area of 45,480 ha was identified as potential T. robusta habitat. For vegetation classified as 1999 remnant, 13,440 ha were identified, representing an overall reduction of 70% in potential habitat for T. robusta. The model was partially validated, with T. robusta found at six new locations. Allowing for errors from spatial mismatching, five of the sites were located within habitat patches predicted by the model. A number of local areas containing high densities of predicted habitat patches were identified to guide searches for unrecorded populations. Strategically located areas linking known populations containing suitable or potentially suitable habitat that may be available for introduction of new populations were identified. The results indicate that the species former centre of range was in lowland areas adjacent to the north arm of the Maroochy River. Clearing and fragmentation of T. robusta habitat is the most likely cause of the apparent decline in distribution and abundance of the species.     

Large-scale correlates of alien plant invasion in Catalonia (NE of Spain)

Identification of the main correlates of the invasion process is a fundamental step in alien species management at the regional scale. This paper explores the main climatic, territorial, and anthropic correlates of alien plant species richness and percentage in Catalonia (NE of Spain), by means of GIS techniques. We used floristic data collected in FLORACAT per UTM 10 km × 10 km to set up the number and the percentage of alien species. The association of these variables with climate, topography, landscape, human settlement, and geographic position was explored by means of stepwise regression models applied on the axes obtained from principal component analysis. The significance of the resulting correlates was tested using the modified t test of Dutilleul to remove the effects of spatial autocorrelation. PCA reduced the 22 variables to 12 principal components (PC) that explained 90% of the cumulative variance. Regression models were highly significant and captured a high proportion of total variance (adjusted r² = 0.70 for alien species richness and r² = 0.56 for alien species percentage). Both alien species richness and percentage were mainly correlated to PC summarising variables concerning climate, habitat and landscape heterogeneity, and potential anthropogenic disturbance. However, while these PC exhibited similar weights on alien species richness, species percentage was mainly determined by climate. Implications for conservation are discussed considering a future scenario of climate warming and increasing land use change in Mediterranean areas.