A study of the comparative economics of conventional and zero traffic systems for arable crops

The profitability of four zero traffic systems were compared with a conventional system on a farm growing combinable crops. The zero traffic options were 6-m tractor and 6-m gantry-based systems, a system using both 6 and 12 m gantries and a system comprising both conventional equipment and a 12 m gantry. Yield effects due to compaction and wheeling losses are estimated. A systematic procedure is described for calculating the soil compaction due to the system, and the work rate of both cultivation and application type operations, as a function of the system.

The yield increases and cultivation energy savings indicate that complete gantry systems are as profitable as conventional systems on medium soil and £25 ha⁻¹ more profitable on heavy soil. The tractor-based system, which cannot plough, is £18 ha⁻¹ less profitable on medium soil but £25 ha⁻¹ more profitable than the conventional system on heavy soil. With the exception of the partial gantry system, which can be fully utilised on a 250 ha farm, farms of 400–500 ha are needed to justify use of the zero traffic equipment considered.     

Efficiency and energy use in puddling of lowland rice grown on Vertisols in Central India

Transplanting of rice seedling in puddled soil is one of the most widely used cultivation practices. The present research is aimed at determining what specific implements are needed to obtain optimal puddle bed for transplantating. Puddling experiments were carried out by the use of pair of bullocks with traditional country plough (T₁), pair of bullocks with lug wheel puddler (T₂), power tiller with rotary puddler (T₃), tractor with cage wheel and 9-tine cultivator (T₄) and tractor with cage wheel and rotavator (T₅). One summer ploughing was done at friable moisture condition (18.6% db) and then tilled soil was flooded to saturation (24 h) for preparation of puddled bed. Weeding efficiency, puddling depth, percentage increase in bulk density, puddling index, percolation rate and grain yield of paddy were studied for the above treatments. Puddling performance by different implements in comparison to the traditional animal drawn country plough (T₁) shows that there is a definite reduction in time requirement for field preparation. Increase in weeding efficiency, bulk density, grain yield and puddling index were also observed. The highest values of weeding efficiency and puddling index were found 98.6% and 79.3, respectively, for rotavator (T₅). The total time requirement for preparation of puddle field for treatment T₄ (tractor with cultivator) was found to be the lowest (9.4 h ha⁻¹) with 67% weeding efficiency and 62.7 puddling index as compared to all other alternatives tested. Energy requirement for preparation of puddle field was found highest (2390 MJ ha⁻¹) for rotavator (T₅) followed by T₃, T₄, T₁, and T₂ treatments.     

Do effects of soil compaction persist after ploughing? Results from 21 long-term field experiments in Sweden

The extent and persistence of the effect of soil compaction in a system with annual ploughing were investigated in 21 long-term field experiments in Sweden with a total of 259 location-years. Crop yield, soil physical properties and plant establishment were determined. All experiments had two common treatments: control (no extra traffic) and compacted (350 Mg km ha⁻¹ of experimental traffic in the autumn prior to ploughing), using a tractor and trailer with traditional wheel equipment and an axle load restricted to 4 Mg. During the rest of the year, both treatments were conventionally and equally tilled. The compaction was repeated each autumn for at least 7 years, and the yield was determined each year until 5 years after the termination of the compaction treatment.

Compaction decreased the porosity and the proportion of large pores and increased the tensile strength of dry aggregates. On clay and loam soils, it decreased the proportion of fine aggregates in the seedbed and the gravimetric soil water content in the seedbed.

The yield in the compacted treatment declined compared with the control during the first 4 years, after which it reached steady state. During this steady state, the compaction treatment caused a yield loss of 11.4%, averaged over 107 location-years. Within 4–5 years after the termination of the compaction treatment, the yield returned to the control level. The average yield loss at individual sites increased with increasing clay content.

Results from additional treatments indicated that yield loss was linearly correlated with the amount of traffic up to 300–400 Mg km ha⁻¹. With greater ground contact pressure or a greater soil water content at time of traffic, there was a greater yield loss.

Soil compaction effects on yield were similar for all spring-sown crops, and the percentage yield loss seemed to be independent of the yield. In a few location-years with winter wheat there was on average no yield decrease.

There were 5.1% less plants in the compacted treatment than in the control. The yield decrease was significantly correlated with the number of plants.

Between years results were highly variable, and no consistent correlations between yield loss and soil water content at the time of traffic or the weather conditions during the growing period were found. Soil compaction affected yield during years with good as well as poor conditions for crop growth.     

The effect of urban refuse compost and different tractors tyres on soil physical properties, soil erosion and maize yield

Application of urban refuse compost to agricultural soil could help to solve municipalities' problems related to the increasing production of waste only if soil property improvement and environmental conservation can be demonstrated. The use of low-pressure tractor tyres is another proposal in modern agriculture for reducing soil compaction. This study thus aimed to detect the effects of both compost and low-pressure tractor tyres on soil loss, runoff, aggregate stability, bulk density, penetrometer resistance and maize (Zea mays L.) yield. A 3-year field experiment was carried out on a hilly (15% slope) clay loam soil in central Italy. Twelve plots (200 m² each) were monitored with tipping-pot devices for runoff and soil erosion measurement. Treatments were: compost addition (64 Mg ha⁻¹), mineral fertilisation, use of low-pressure tyres, use of traditional tyres, with three replicates, in a fully randomised block design. Compost was applied once at the beginning of the experiment. Runoff reduction due to compost ranged between 7 and 399 m³ ha⁻¹ during seasons, while soil erosion was reduced between 0.2 and 2.4 Mg ha⁻¹. Mean weight diameter (MWD) of stable aggregates, measured on wheel tracks, increased by 2.19 mm, then progressively decreased. Compost significantly increased bulk density by 0.08 Mg m⁻³ due to its inert fraction content. This effect was less evident in the second and third year, probably due to harrowing. Maize yields were slightly, but significantly, reduced in composted plots by 1.72 Mg ha⁻¹ in the third year. Low-pressure tyres significantly reduced soil loss in the third year by 1 Mg ha⁻¹. Furthermore, they did not significantly influence runoff volumes and soil structural stability. Low-pressure tyres or compost addition were singly able to prevent an increase in penetrometer resistance due to agricultural machinery traffic. Low-pressure tyres increased the maize yield during the 3 years and the difference (0.4 Mg ha⁻¹) became significant in the third year. In conclusion, results show the positive lasting effect of compost in ameliorating soil physical properties and reducing runoff and soil erosion. Low-pressure tyres appear justifiable both for the observed increase of grain production and reduction of soil compaction. This latter effect is, nevertheless, masked by compost addition which is also able to reduce penetrometer resistance. Further research is required to explain the causes of the slight inhibition of grain yield observed when compost was compared with mineral fertilisation.     

Traffic alternatives for harvesting soybean (Glycine max L.): Effect on yields and soil under a direct sowing system

This initially high level of soil compaction in some direct sowing systems might suggest that the impact of subsequent traffic would be minimal, but data have not been consistent. Soil compaction is caused by the high traffic intensity and weight of tractor and combines in harvest operations, especially when these operations are carried out on wet soil or with high-pressure tyres. Traffic effects on the yield of soybean and on some physical soil properties were studied over a period of 3 years. After this period, the reduction of traffic intensity from 38 to 15 Mg km⁻¹ ha⁻¹ produced an increase on the yields of 29.2% from the base year improving the incomes by US$134 ha⁻¹ besides the reduction of fuel consumption of 35.5%. With the results obtained in this work it can be assumed that traffic reduction at harvest has a good potential to increase yields and reduce soil compaction under direct sowing system on the Rolling Pampa Region, Argentina.     

Effect of different tillage systems on soil properties and wheat yield in Middle Anatolia

Field experiments were conducted on a clay soil in entisol to determine the effect of different tillage tools on soil properties, emergence rate index and yield of wheat in Middle Anatolia. There were four different tillage treatments: mouldboard ploughing followed by disc harrowing twice; rotary tillage twice; stubble cultivator followed by a disc harrowing; heavy globe disc twice. The smallest aggregate mean weight diameters and surface roughness were produced by rotary tillage. Decreasing mean weight diameter decreased the surface roughness. There was a significant (P < 0.01) effect of the four different tillage systems on moisture content, bulk density, penetration resistance, aggregate mean weight diameter and surface roughness. Tillage systems had a significant effect on emergence rate and yield of wheat. Emergence rate index and yield of wheat varied from 15.24 to 18.88 and from 3065 kg ha⁻¹ to 4265 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. The greatest emergence rate index and yield were obtained with stubble cultivator followed by disc harrowing treatment.     

Amelioration of a hardsetting Alfisol through deep mouldboard ploughing, gypsum application and double cropping. III. Crop production and profitability

Deep mouldoard ploughing to 0.45 m, gypsum application (5 t ha⁻¹), and double cropping were evaluated, alone and combined, as ameliorants for a hardsetting red-brown earth (Alfisol). The double cropped treatment consisted of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) and a summer forage crop consisting of sudax (Sorghum sudanese) intersown with cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). This paper describes the effect of these treatments on crop development, yield, crop-water relations and economic returns. Crop emergence was not affected by any treatment. Mouldboard ploughing significantly increased wheat grain yield from 1.86 to 2.15 t ha⁻¹, in 1984, but not in 1985. Yield was also increased from 5.18 to 5.68 t ha⁻¹ as a result of gypsum addition in 1985—after no significant difference in 1984. Double cropping significantly increased yield (by 0.6 t ha⁻¹) in 1985. Greater increases were obtained with the summer cropping phase where higher evaporative demand during the summer would have aggravated soil structural problems associated with hardsetting. Sudax-cowpea dry matter yields were increased from 13.6 to 17 t ha⁻¹ and from 13.0 to 17.5 t ha⁻¹ during summer 1984–1985 by gypsum and mouldboard ploughing, respectively. The higher yields are attributed to increased water storage and depletion, and reduced soil strength for the mouldboard ploughed and gypsum main treatments. No interactions were found between the main treatments, except at the end of the 1985 winter cropping phase when there was a negative interaction between mouldboard ploughing and gypsum application for dry matter, equivalent root length and yield. The yield increases associated with mouldboard ploughing did not persist beyond the second year of the experiment. Double cropping combined with mouldboard ploughing (Mb+DC) was the most profitable treatment, whereas mouldboard ploughing with gypsum (Mb+G) was the least profitable for the crops grown in this experiment.     

Effect of organic and inorganic soil nitrogen amendments on mouldboard plow draft

A long-term field experiment with continuous corn, corn–soybean, and corn–alfalfa rotations, and different organic and inorganic soil nitrogen amendments was established at Ottawa, Ont., in 1991. Amendments applied to continuous corn were none, inorganic fertilizer at 100 and 200 kg N ha⁻¹, stockpiled and rotted manure, each at 50 and 100 Mg ha⁻¹ (wet weight). Amendments applied in the corn year to the 2-year rotations were none, inorganic fertilizer at 100 kg N ha⁻¹, and stockpiled and rotted manure at 50 Mg ha⁻¹. Mouldboard plow draft and tractor fuel consumption measurements were made with Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s instrumented research tractor in conjunction with normal fall tillage in 1991 prior to amendment application, and for 4 years from 1996 to 1999.

Results showed a small difference among the amendment treatments in 1996 and 1997, and a much larger difference in 1998 and 1999. After 8 years of amendment application, plots receiving the manure amendments at the high rates exhibited from 27 to 38% lower plow draft and 13 to 18% lower tractor fuel consumption than those receiving the inorganic fertilizer. The difference was less for plots receiving the lower manure rates. The same trend occurred in the 2-year rotation plots where manures were applied in alternate years, although, the differences were much lower, and not always significant. The data clearly show that changes in soil structure and organic matter accompanying repeated applications of manure are manifested in reduced tillage energy.     

A model for estimating crop yield losses caused by soil compaction

A computerized empirical model for estimating the crop yield losses caused by machinery-induced soil compaction and the value of various countermeasures is presented, along with some examples of estimations made with it. The model is based mainly on results of Swedish field trials, and predicts the effects of compaction in a tillage system that includes mouldboard ploughing. It is designed for use at farm level and predicts four categories of effects: (1) Effects of recompaction after ploughing. The calculations are based on the wheel track distribution in the field and the relationship between “degree of compactness” of the plough layer and crop yield. (2) Effects of plough layer compaction persisting after ploughing. Crop yield losses are estimated from traffic intensity in Mgkm ha⁻¹ (Mgkm = the product of the weight of a machine and the distance driven), soil moisture content, tyre inflation pressure and clay content. (3) Effects of subsoil compaction. The calculations are similar to those presented under point (2), but only vehicles with high axle load are considered. These effects are the most persistent. (4) Effects of traffic in ley crops. The estimations are based on wheel track distribution, soil moisture content and several other factors.     

Implement and soil condition effects on tillage-induced erosion

Water, wind, or tillage-induced soil erosion can significantly degrade soil quality. Therefore, understanding soil displacement through tillage translocation is an important step toward developing tillage practices that do not degrade soil resources. Our primary objective was to determine the effects of soil condition (i.e. grassland stubble versus previously tilled soil), opening angle, and harrow speed on soil translocation. A second field study also conducted on a Lixisol but only in the stubble field, quantified displacement effects of mouldboard ploughing. The field studies were located 12 km South of Évora, Portugal. Soil displacement or translocation after each tillage operation in both studies was measured using aluminium cubes with a side length of 15 mm as ‘tracers’. Offset angles for the harrow disk were 20°, 44° and 59°; tractor velocities ranged from 1.9 to 7.0 km h⁻¹ and tillage depth ranged from 4 to 11 cm. The depth of mouldboard ploughing was approximately 40 cm with a wheel speed of 3.7 km h⁻¹. The translocation coefficients for the two implements were very different averaging 770 kg m⁻¹ for the mouldboard plough and ranging from 9 to 333 kg m⁻¹ for the harrow disk. This shows that the mouldboard plough was more erosive than the harrow disk in these studies. All three variables (soil condition, opening angle, and tillage velocity) were critical factors affecting the translocation coefficient for the harrow disk. Displacement distances were the largest for compacted soils (stubble field), with higher opening or offset angles, and at higher velocities. The results also showed significant correlation for (a) mean soil displacement in the direction of tillage and the slope gradient and (b) soil transport coefficient and the opening angle. Our results can be used to predict the transport coefficient (a potential soil quality indicator for tillage erosion) for the harrow disk, provided tillage depth, opening angle, and tool operating speed are known.     

A study of mole drainage with simplified cultivation for autumn-sown crops on a clay soil. 5. Losses of nitrate-N in surface run-off and drain water

Direct drilling of autumn-sown cereal crops reduced the loss of nitrate in drainage. Losses of nitrate nitrogen in water draining from arable land have been measured for 4 seasons, 1980–1984. The field experiment was on a mole-drained clay soil in southern England. Autumn-sown cereal crops were established by direct drilling or after ploughing and traditional seed-bed preparation. Losses ranged from 3 to 75 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, with an average of 34 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Most of the loss (about 90%) was removed via the mole-drain system. Measured loss of nitrate from the direct-drilled soil was 76% (range 48–89%) of that lost from the ploughed soil. Mole drains apparently increased loss of nitrate directly to the river system. In the absence of mole drains, nitrate loss in surface drainage averaged 6 kg N ha⁻¹, compared with 4 kg N ha⁻¹ in the presence of drains. However, in one year, exceptionally high amounts of nitrate (80 kg N ha⁻¹) were lost from undrained, direct-drilled land because of poor crop establishment; deep leaching of nitrate in the undrained soil was not measured. Approximate calculations show that up to half the autumn-applied fertiliser-N was lost by leaching and up to 15% of spring applications.     

Traffic and tillage effects on soil conditions and crop growth on a swelling clay soil

Abstract. Trafficked and non-trafficked (12 m gantry) crop production systems, which had been maintained on an Evesham series 60% clay soil since 1986, were used again in 1993 during the cultivation and sowing of winter wheat. After a one year set-aside break, mouldboard ploughing, tine cultivation and rotary digging were compared. Measurements were made of tillage energy, soil tilth, cone penetration resistance, biological activity and crop performance, and on specific plots, soil density, seedbed tilth and water release characteristics. Despite the one year's set-aside break, the effect of the previously applied traffic treatments remained and resulted in a smaller specific plough resistance and tillage energy on the non-trafficked soil. Tine cultivator draught however was greater on the non-trafficked compared with the trafficked plots. The specific energy required for rotary digging on non-trafficked soil was similar to that required during the ploughing of similar plots. A measure of indefinite biotic activity indicated that this was apparently greater on the non-traffficked soil, while soil density was decreased by up to 18% in these conditions compared with the trafficked land. Average cone resistance over the depth range 0 to 0.5 m was 1.51 MPa on the trafficked, compared with 1.24 MPa on the non-trafficked soil. Cone resistance also tended to be greater after tine cultivation compared with that after ploughing. Water release curves were interpreted as showing more macropores within the topsoil of the non-trafficked compared with the trafficked plots. Tine cultivation on trafficked soil had more smaller pores than mouldboard plough cultivation. Winter wheat yield was increased by 25% (from 8 to 10 t/ha) on non-trafficked compared with trafficked soil.     

Measurement and modelling of the effects of initial soil conditions and slope gradient on soil translocation by tillage

Tillage erosion studies have mainly focused on the effect of topography and cultivation practices on soil translocation during tillage. However, the possible effect of initial soil conditions on soil displacement and soil erosion during tillage have not been considered. This study aims at investigating the effect of the initial soil conditions on net soil displacement and the associated erosion rates by a given tillage operation of a stony loam soil. Tillage erosion experiments were carried out with a mouldboard plough on a freshly ploughed (pre-tilled) soil and a soil under grass fallow in the Alentejo region (Southern Portugal).

The experimental results show that both the downslope displacement of soil material and the rate of increase of the downslope displacement with slope gradient are greater when the soil is initially in a loose condition. This was attributed to: (i) a greater tillage depth on the pre-tilled soil and (ii) a reduced internal cohesion of the pre-tilled soil, allowing clods to roll and/or slide down the plough furrow after being overturned by the mouldboard plough.

An analysis of additional available data on soil translocation by mouldboard tillage showed that downslope displacement distances were only significantly related to the slope gradient when tillage is carried out in the downslope direction. When tillage is carried out in the upslope direction, the effect of slope gradient on upslope displacement distances was not significant. This has important implications for the estimation of the tillage transport coefficient, which is a measure for the intensity of tillage erosion, from experimental data. For our experiments, estimated values of the tillage transport coefficient were 70 and 254 kg m⁻¹ per tillage operation for grass fallow and pre-tilled conditions, respectively, corresponding to local maximum erosion rates of ca. 8 and 35 Mg ha⁻¹ per tillage operation and local maximum deposition rates of ca. 33 and 109 Mg ha⁻¹ per tillage operation.     

Soil management by shallow mouldboard ploughing in The Netherlands

The structure of the soil in the arable layer is controlled by tillage, soil biota activities and weathering, whereas the structure below this layer is mainly the result of the activities of soil biota. Organic farmers tend to minimise the depth of the main tillage operation to encourage soil biota to create a soil structure with continuous biopores and a well crumbled topsoil. The best main tillage operation for preventive weed control, especially important in organic farming, is mouldboard ploughing. The shallow ploughing experiments described in this paper were conducted to ascertain the minimum ploughing depth for an ecologically accountable, sustainable tillage system with good weed control, good land qualities (in terms of workable days, aeration and soil moisture conditions) and finally with good yields. The “ecoplough” used for shallow ploughing was developed by Rumptstad Industries to meet the requirements of relatively shallow ploughing with good soil inversion for weed control. The plough has seven or eight bottoms for ploughing depths of 0.12–0.20 m, a working width of 2.1 m and a working speed of 1.7 m s⁻¹. Its width is such that the tractor with wide low-pressure tyres runs on top of the land.

After using the plough for 6 years on Luvisols (>200 gkg⁻¹<2 μm) in the IJsselmeer polders and on Luvisols (120–160 gkg⁻¹<2 μm) in polders near the northern coast of The Netherlands, it was found that compared with conventional ploughing, shallow ploughing required less energy and labour and produced a relatively smooth surface. The latter facilitates the preparation of a seedbed consisting of relatively fine, strong, stable and moist aggregates. Organic matter, soil biota and nutrients were concentrated higher in the profile, influencing the workability of the soil, the growth of weeds and the growth of crops. Most of the yields were similar to yields after conventional ploughing, but weed populations increased when ploughing depth was <0.2 m. It was concluded that for organic farming on “active” soils (soils subject to shrink/swell with >200 g kg⁻¹<2 μm), shallow ploughing seems to be the best reduced tillage system. It has several advantages. The main factor determining the minimum ploughing depth is control of weeds, especially of perennials.     

Amelioration of a hardsetting Alfisol through deep mouldboard ploughing, gypsum application and double cropping. I. Soil physical and chemical properties

Contrasting soil management techniques were applied to a hardsetting red-brown earth (Alfisol) used for flood-irrigated wheat (Triticum aestivum) production at Trangie, N.S.W., Australia. The individual and combined effects of deep mouldboard ploughing to a depth of 0.45 m, gypsum application (5 t ha⁻¹) and double cropping upon aggregate stability, bulk density, porosity, cone index and the non-limiting water range were evaluated. Dispersion and slaking of the surface soil were unaffected by the treatments when measured at the end of the second year of the experiment. Approximately 60% of the soil mass in the 0–0.15 m layer slaked on wetting, whereas less than 1% of the soil dispersed. Organic carbon (OC) levels of the surface soil were not affected by double cropping or gypsum application, but were reduced by mouldboard ploughing from 0.9% to 0.6% OC. The relationship between OC and macroaggregate (more than 250 μm) stability indicated that large increases in OC beyond 0.7% OC were required for relatively small increases in aggregate stability. Mouldboard ploughing increased clay content of the upper 0.15 m of the soil from 22% to 27%. This was associated with an increase in the frequency and depth of cracking which, however, diminished over time. The non-limiting water range (NLWR) was expanded in the uppermost 0.1 m by gypsum application from 0.15–0.30 to 0.09–0.28 m³ m⁻³. Mouldboard ploughing expanded the NLWR at a depth of 0.2 m. Penetrometer resistance, on average, exceeded the critical value for wheat root growth at a water content of 0.15 m³ m⁻³, which is substantially higher than the wilting point (0.09 m³ m⁻³). Excessive resistance to penetration as opposed to inadequate aeration or water availability is the main agronomic impediment in these soils, at least in the initial stages of crop development. Penetration resistance within the 0.05–0.3 m layer was reduced during a drying cycle in the order: mouldboard ploughing>gypsum>double cropping. The reduced penetration resistance associated with mouldboard ploughing was due to higher water content to a depth of 0.2 m and reduced bulk density below this depth.     

Effect of different tillage systems on the quality and crop productivity of a clay–loam soil in semi-arid north-western Turkey

A 2-year study was conducted to investigate the effect of three tillage systems on the properties of clay–loam soil (EutricVertisol) planted with winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the Canakkale province of north-western Turkey. Crop productivity was also evaluated. The three tillage treatments were: (1) conventional tillage involving mouldboard ploughing followed by two discings (MT); (2) shallow tillage consisting of rototilling followed by one discing (RT); (3) double discing (DD). In the first year of the study, bulk density (BD) was found significantly lower under RT at both 0–10 and 10–20 cm depths with 1.24 and 1.32 Mg cm⁻³, respectively, when compared to MT treatment. However, MT at 20–30 cm provided the highest BD, at 1.49 Mg cm⁻³. In the second year of the study, DD had the lowest BD at all depths followed by RT and MT. Based on the 2-year mean, aggregate size distribution (ASD) and mean weight diameter (MWD) were significantly influenced by tillage treatments. The greatest MWD was obtained with DD, followed by MT and RT. Increasing MWD and coarse aggregates decreased seedling emergence. Organic carbon increased after RT, DD, and MT by 58%, 30%, and 18%, respectively, when compared to the amount at the beginning of the study. Similarly, the total N in the soil and straw was higher after RT than the other treatments. At 1.76 MPa, penetration resistance at 18–30 cm was significantly higher during the growing period using DD, followed by RT with 1.35 MPa and MT with 1.33 MPa. There was no significant difference between treatments at 0–18 cm. Increasing OC and total N and decreasing BD and PR under RT increased grain yield to 4611 kg ha⁻¹, followed by MT and DD at 4375 and 4163 kg ha⁻¹, respectively, according to the 2-year mean.     

Tillage impacts on aggregate stability and crop productivity in a clay-loam soil in central Iran

To take advantage of conservation tillage systems (including direct drilling and non-inversion) in central Iran, it is important to study the effects of different cultivation practices on soil structural stability as a physical indicator. A four-year study was conducted to investigate the effects of seven tillage systems on aggregate properties of a clay-loam soil (Calcic Cambisol) with continuous wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production. Crop productivity was also evaluated. Tillage treatments were moldboard plowing+disking (MD) as conventional tillage; chisel plowing +disking (CD); chisel plowing+rotary tilling (CR); chisel plowing (twice)+disking (2CD); plowing with Khishchi (a regional rigid cultivator)+disking (KD) as non-inversion methods; and till-planting with cultivator combined drill (TP); and no-till (NT) as direct drilling methods. A randomized complete block design consisting of four replications was used. Samples were taken from three different soil depths. A wet sieving method was used to determine aggregate size distribution (ASD), and mean weight diameter (MWD) as indices of soil aggregate stability. Soil organic carbon was also determined. For the first three years of the experiment, ASD and MWD at 0–15 cm were similar in different tillage treatments, except for direct drilling which had a significantly higher amount of aggregate greater than 2 mm and 2–1 mm diameter compared to the conventional method. At the second and third sampling depths all treatments had similar influence on ASD and MWD. Tillage treatments showed a significant effect on ASD and MWD in the fourth year of the experiment in all three depths. Almost 70% of the aggregates in the MD system were less than 0.25 mm, while only 55% of the aggregates in the direct drilling methods were less than 0.25 mm diameter. The four-year yield average for conventional and non-inversion tillage systems was 7264 and 6815 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. Although, direct drilling improved soil structural stability, its lower yield (5608 and 4731 kg ha⁻¹ for TP and NT, respectively) potential would indicate that reduced tillage systems (i.e. CD) appear to be the accepted alternative management compared to conventional practice (MD).     

Traffic and residue management systems: effects on fate of fertilizer N in corn

Soil compaction has been recognized as a problem limiting crop production, especially in the Southern Coastal Plain of the USA. Development of tillage and residue management systems is needed to alleviate soil compaction problems in these soils. Fertilizer nitrogen (N) management is also an important factor in these management systems. In 1988, a study was initiated with a wide-frame (6.3 m) vehicle to determine the interactive effects of traffic, deep tillage, and surface residue management on the fate of fertilizer N applied to corn (Zea mays L.) grown on a Norfork loamy sand (fine-loamy, siliceous, Thermic, Typic Kandiudults). Corn was planted into a winter cover crop of ‘Tibbee’ crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.). Treatments included: traffic (conventional equipment or no traffic); deep tillage (no deep tillage, annual in-row subsoiling, or one-time only complete disruption); residue management (no surface tillage or disk and field cultivation). The one-time only complete disruption was accomplished by subsoiling at a depth of 43 cm on 25 cm centers in spring 1988. In 1990–1991, fertilizer applications were made as ¹⁵N-depleted NH₄NO₃ to microplots inside each treatment plot. The 1990 and 1991 data are reported here. In 1990 an extreme drought resulted in an average grain yield of 1.8 Mg grain ha⁻¹, whereas abundant rainfall in 1991 resulted in 9.4 Mg grain ha⁻¹. Deep tillage increased corn dry matter production in both years. In 1991, grain yields indicated that corn was susceptible to recompaction of soil owing to traffic when residues were incorporated with surface tillage. In the dry year, plant N uptake was increased 27% with deep tillage and decreased 10% with traffic. In the wet year, a surface tillage × deep tillage × traffic interaction was observed for total N uptake, fertilizer N uptake, and total fertilizer N recovery in the plant-soil system. When combined with traffic, plant N uptake was reduced with the highest intensity tillage treatment (135 kg N ha⁻¹) because of rootrestricting soil compaction, and with the lowest intensity tillage treatment (129 kg N ha⁻¹) because of increased N losses. In these soils, leaving residues on the soil surface can reduce the detrimental effect of traffic on corn production, but if no surface tillage is performed, deep tillage is needed.     

Effect of tractor weight, depth of ploughing and wheel placement during ploughing in an organic cereal rotation on contrasting soils

The relative effects of using light (2–3 Mg) versus heavier (5–7 Mg) tractors, shallow (15 cm) versus deeper (25 cm) ploughing and on-land versus in-furrow wheel placement during ploughing were investigated from 2003 to 2006 in organic rotations (wheat or barley, green manure, oats with peas) and conventionally fertilized barley. Trials were located on loam soil in south-eastern Norway and silty clay loam in central Norway. Ploughing was performed in spring, when the topsoil moisture content was at or below field capacity, using single furrow ploughs that allowed alternative wheel placement and resulted in complete coverage of the surface by wheels each year (ca. 3 times the normal coverage during ploughing). Low tyre inflation pressures (≤80 kPa) were used throughout. The use of a heavy tractor increased topsoil bulk density slightly in the loam soil, and, in combination with in-furrow wheeling, it reduced air-filled pore space and air permeability at 18–22 cm. On the silty clay loam, the use of a heavy tractor did not increase bulk density, but it reduced air-filled pore space throughout the topsoil. In-furrow wheeling reduced air-filled pore space in this soil also, compared to on-land wheeling. Penetration resistance was in this soil always greater at 15–25 cm depth after shallow than after deep ploughing, especially with in-furrow rather than on-land wheeling. Shallow ploughing led on both soils to marked increases in perennial weed biomass compared to deep ploughing. Earthworms were hardly affected by the treatments, but in the loam in 2006 a higher number of individuals were found where the light rather than the heavy tractor had been used. Few significant treatment effects were found on grain yield and quality. Deep ploughing with a light tractor gave the highest wheat yield and protein content in 2 years on the loam soil, and on the silty clay loam the yield of conventionally fertilized barley was higher after deep than after shallow ploughing. In summary, limited evidence was found to support the use of on-land rather than in-furrow wheeling when ploughing is performed at favourable soil moisture and with tractor weights < 5 Mg. There is, however, reason to be wary of using heavy tractors (>5 Mg), even under such conditions. With regard to ploughing depth in organic rotations dominated by cereals, the need to combat perennial weeds by deep ploughing weighs probably more heavily than any possible beneficial effect of shallow ploughing on stimulating nutrient turnover.     

Effect of deep tillage for vineyard establishment on soil structure: A case study in Southern France

Deep tillage that is used before vine plantation to remove old vine roots and loosen subsoil may induce physical soil degradation that could affect soil structure and vine water supply. The objective of the study was to experimentally evaluate the effect of deep tillage on soil structure. The impacts on soil structure of two deep tillage techniques, i.e. deep ploughing and ripper, and two contrasted soil water conditions were compared in a experimental field by combining morphological observations, bulk density and saturated hydraulic conductivity measurements. These three methods were found very complementary to analyse and discriminate the impact of the different treatments. The proportion of compacted zones and mean bulk density increased from the initial plot (0.15 m² m⁻², 1.45 Mg m⁻³) to a maximum in the case of the deep ploughing under wet conditions plot (0.60 m² m⁻², 1.60 Mg m⁻³). The main results showed that (i) a significant soil compaction was observed after wet conditions only, (ii) deep ploughing produced more soil compaction than ripper because of a greater volume of soil affected by wheeling in the former operation and (iii) a specific response of soils is significatively observed in the case of deep ploughing only with an increase of compacted zones fragmentation in relation to a decrease of clay content.