桑枝粗细对枝条叶片养分分配比例的影响

通过探明新生桑树叶片和枝条内的养分分配比例与桑枝粗细之间的关系,揭示不同粗细桑树枝条的叶片和枝条的干物质、矿物质养分分配规律,为桑叶或桑枝原材料的选择利用提供参考依据。以农桑14号为研究材料,在雾化栽培的条件下研究叶片和枝条间干物质和N、P、K、Ca、Mg、Cu、Zn、Fe、Mn、S、B、Mo和Cl等13种矿物质养分对桑树枝条粗细的响应情况。试验结果表明:桑树K、Ca、Mg、Zn和Mn在叶片和枝条的分配比例不受桑树枝条粗细的影响,而细枝条上的叶片在干物质和N、P、Cu、Fe、S、B、Mo与Cl等矿物质养分的分配上具有显著的优势。     

施用N,P,K肥对杂交苏丹草吸收Cu,Zn,Mn的影响

采用盆栽试验,研究了施用N,P,K肥对杂交苏丹草吸收Cu,Zn,Mn等微量营养元素的影响.结果表明:1)各处理Cu的吸收量大小的顺序依次为NPK＞NP＞NK＞N＞P＞K＞CK＞PK;各处理杂交苏丹草体内Cu浓度的变幅是24.7～39.8 μg/g;N是影响杂交苏丹草吸收Cu的主导因子,由于稀释效应,施N处理的杂交苏丹草体内Cu的浓度相对较低.2)各处理杂交苏丹草Zn的吸收量大小的顺序依次为NPK＞NP＞N＞NK＞CK＞K＞P＞PK,杂交苏丹草体内Zn的浓度变幅是64.3～140.8 μg/g,而P,K对Zn的吸收产生拮抗作用.3)杂交苏丹草Mn的吸收量大小的顺序依次为NPK＞N＞NP＞NK＞P＞CK＞K＞PK,P对杂交苏丹草Mn的吸收有促进作用,K对杂交苏丹草Mn的吸收有较为显著的抑制作用;各处理Mn浓度的变幅是17.3～44.0 μg/g.     

海南贵妃芒干物质及养分年积累量研究

通过对海南省乐东县贵妃芒干物质及养分年积累量研究，结果表明：⑴贵妃树体不同器官干物质年积累量顺序为：采收果>修剪叶>花及梗>修剪枝>落果；其中花及梗占13.67%、落果1.78%、修剪叶24.06%、修剪枝10.28%、采收果50.21%。⑵贵妃树体十一种营养元素年积累量大小顺序为：N>K>Ca>P>Mg>S>Mn>Fe>Zn>B>Cu。⑶以生产1000kg贵妃芒计，树体养分需求为：干物质496.46kg、N 5.81kg、P 0.69kg、K 4.83kg、Ca 3.20kg、Mg 0.48kg、S 0.35kg、Fe 37.91g、Mn 155.43g、Cu 4.41g、Zn 9.49g、B 9.40g。     

紫穗槐植株的养分含量及分布特征

为了探明紫穗槐植株的营养结构特征,测定了生长季(6,7,8,9月)紫穗槐叶和不同径级根、茎的10种养分(有机碳、N、P、K、Ca、Mg、Fe、Mn、Cu、Zn)含量。结果表明,1)根和茎的N、P、K含量与径级呈典型逆相关关系,即随着径级的增大养分含量减少,含量最高的部位集中于叶及小径级的根、茎。2) 各级根、茎的Ca、Mg、Fe、Mn、Cu、Zn含量没有固定的分布特征。3)微量元素间的相关性比其与大量元素的相关性差,茎中所含相关元素对最多,其次是叶,根最少;从元素方面看,N、P、K与较多的元素间存在相关性,与C、Zn、Ca相关的元素较少。4)生长季紫穗槐叶的C、N、Ca、Mn、Cu含量高于根和茎,叶中大量元素的含量顺序为C＞N＞K＞Ca＞Mg＞P,微量元素为Fe＞Mn＞Zn＞Cu。     

‘都克’蓝莓成熟期矿质营养元素积累和分配特性研究

为明确‘都克’蓝莓果实成熟期树体矿质营养元素的积累和分配特性,利用整株树体挖掘解剖的方法,测定各组织的生物量和矿质营养元素含量。结果表明：‘都克’蓝莓果实成熟期单株树体总生物量为915.77 g,地上部与地下部生物量的比值为1：0.82。N、Ca、Mg、Mn、Zn和B元素表现为叶片中含量最高,P元素为根系中含量最高,K元素为果实中含量最高,Fe、Cu和Mo元素为根颈和根系中含量最高。‘都克’蓝莓树体N元素积累总量最大,大部分矿质营养元素主要向根系中分配。生产1 000 kg果实树体地上部需要吸收的矿质营养元素总量为N 4.16 kg、P 1.25 kg、K 1.69 kg、Ca 2.15 kg、Mg 0.51 kg、Fe 37.68 g、Mn 42.23 g、Zn 6.47 g、Cu 2.27 g、B 3.30 g和Mo 0.12 g。     

苏尼特右旗草原主要植物矿质营养元素含量特征

草原植物的矿质营养元素含量不仅直接关系到动物的健康生长及其品质,而且与草原生态环境保护密切相关。研究从内蒙古锡林郭勒盟苏尼特右旗草原采取主要植物样品,分析其N、P、K、Ca、Mg、S、Fe、Mn、Cu、Zn、Mo、B和Se含量,以期了解不同植物的矿质营养元素含量特征。研究结果表明:23种主要植物含N量变异最小,而P、K、Mg、Mn、Cu和Zn含量的变异居中,Ca、S、Fe、B、Mo和Se变异比较大。总的来看,大部分禾本科植物K、Ca、Mg和S的含量比较低,藜科植物Ca、Mg、Mn和B的含量比较高,百合科植物S和Se的含量比较高,而Fe含量明显低于其他植物,菊科植物含Cu比较多,阿氏旋花Fe和Mn含量比较高,苔草N、P、K和Mo含量比较高。包括优质牧草羊草在内的7种植物Se含量等于或低于0.05mg/kg,值得关注。     

氮素运筹对皖草2号和墨西哥玉米吸收Fe、Mn、Cu、Zn的影响

为明确氮素运筹对皖草2号和墨西哥玉米吸收矿质元素的影响,本研究分析了两者茎、叶及整株的Fe、Mn、Cu、Zn元素含量、累积量以及产量的变化情况。结果表明,皖草2号和墨西哥玉米植株中,Fe的含量最高,且叶片中的Fe含量明显高于茎;皖草2号的Mn、Cu、Zn含量高于或显著高于墨西哥玉米,但Fe含量显著低于墨西哥玉米。不同氮素运筹比较,一次性施肥处理中,2种牧草均以300 kg/hm²(N1)处理的Fe含量最高;而分次施肥处理中,Fe含量有随施氮量的增加而增加的趋势;皖草2号的Mn含量以N1处理最高,Cu、Zn含量以低施氮量处理较高;而墨西哥玉米的Mn含量随施氮量的增加而增加,Cu、Zn含量均以底肥一次性施入的含量较高。N1处理的Fe、Mn、Cu、Zn累积量和产量最高,且墨西哥玉米的累积量和产量显著高于皖草2号。不同器官中4种元素的累积量和产量不同,皖草2号叶片中Fe的累积量和产量高于茎,而Mn、Cu、Zn的累积量和产量低于茎;墨西哥玉米叶片中Fe、Mn、Cu、Zn的累积量和产量均显著高于茎。刈割次数对2种牧草吸收4种元素的影响也不同,皖草2号的 Fe、Mn、Zn含量以头茬草最高,而Cu 含量以第3次刈割草的含量最高;墨西哥玉米则以头茬草的Mn、Cu含量和第3次刈割草的Zn含量最高。2种牧草再生草中4种元素的累积速率表现为Fe＞Mn＞Zn＞Cu,且均呈逐渐下降的趋势,墨西哥玉米的降低幅度大于皖草2号。综合分析认为,生产上选择皖草2号牧草类型,采取一次性施入氮肥300 kg/hm²的管理措施,可以获得矿质营养较高的优质牧草,且要重视头茬草的产量。     

台农芒果干物质及养分积累研究

通过枝解法采集高产和低产树果树不同生育期不同器官干物质并进行分析,研究海南“台农一号”芒果年周期干物质积累量和养分积累量,为平衡施肥提供科学依据。结果表明：（1）营养生长期、花期、果期三个阶段干物质积累量之比约为3：2：5,不同器官干物质积累量大小顺序均为：果＞叶＞枝＞落花≈落枝≈落果。（2）生产1000kg鲜果,所需N、P、K、Ca、Mg纯养分量分别为：2.86~2.95kg,0.43~0.49 kg,3.21~3.60 kg,2.30~2.77 kg,0.27~0.42 kg。(3) 叶片N、P养分积累量与果实养分积累量有较强相关性,且果实N、P、K养分之间两两极显著相关,存在协同作用。     

施肥对苏丹草产草量和氮磷钾养分吸收的影响

研究施肥措施对苏丹草产草量以及对氮磷钾养分吸收的影响。结果表明:推荐施肥能显著提高产草量,比习惯施肥增产28.2%,比对照区增产150.0%。各处理的干物质日积累量均在出苗后第38~62d达最大值,分别为335.6、322.9和213.8 kg/hm²/d。在试验条件下,每生产1t苏丹草鲜草,推荐施肥需吸收N 2.59 kg、P₂O₅0.65 kg和K₂O 3.13 kg,其N:P₂O₅:K₂O=1:0.25:1.21;习惯施肥需吸收N 2.56 kg、P₂O₅0.76 kg和K₂O 3.30 kg,其N:P₂O₅:K₂O=1:0.30:1.29;对照区需吸收N 2.39 kg、P₂O₅0.98 kg和K₂O 3.06 kg,其N:P₂O₅:K₂O=1:0.41:1.28。     

赣南不同土壤类型脐橙园叶片营养状况研究

从赣南10个区县的沙质红壤、黏性红壤、紫色土和黄壤共131个果园采样测试了叶片营养元素含量，分析营养丰缺状况。赣南脐橙园普遍存在叶片N、K过量和Mg、Zn同时缺乏的问题。叶片N、P、K、Ca、Mg、Fe和 Mn在不同土壤类型的果园间存在显著性差异（P<0.05）：沙性红壤果园P、Fe更为丰富。黏性红壤果园N含量最高，K的过量程度和 Mg的缺乏程度都最轻。黄壤果园P更丰富，Ca更缺乏，Mn最容易过量。紫色土果园N、P含量最低，K最易过量，Ca较丰富，Mg最缺乏，有部分pH较高的果园植株缺Fe。叶片S、Zn、Cu、B和Mo 在不同土壤类型的果园间差异不显著（P>0.05），但有相当比例的脐橙园叶片缺Cu，少量果园叶片缺B，所有果园叶片S和Mo在适宜范围内。赣南脐橙园叶片N、K过量和Mg、Zn缺乏的情况较为普遍，不同土壤类型的脐橙园叶片N、P、K、Ca、Mg、Fe和 Mn营养丰缺状况存在显著性差异（P>0.05）。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.