Haemoproteus lophortyx infection in bobwhite quail

This report chronicles recurring outbreaks of Haemoproteus lophortyx infection in captive bobwhite quail. Clinically, the signs of infection included reluctance to move, ruffled appearance, prostration, and death. These signs were associated with parasitemia, anemia, and the presence of large megaloschizonts in skeletal muscles, particularly those of the thighs and back. The average cumulative mortality for flocks experiencing outbreaks was over 20%. In a typical outbreak, mortality rose when the birds were 5-6 wk of age, peaked in 8-to-10-wk-old quail, and declined rapidly when the quail were 9-11 wk old. Outbreaks occurred exclusively between the months of May and October, and warm weather was determined to be a risk factor for H. lophortyx mortality. This protozoan most likely overwinters in native California quail in the area and is transmitted to quail on the ranch by an insect vector that emerges in warm weather. Infection of the large population of na?ve bobwhite quail on the ranch leads to amplification of H. lophortyx, resulting in epidemics in successive flocks.     

Pasteurellosis in bobwhite quail

A flock of 5000 six-week-old bobwhite quails (Colinus virginianus) experienced high mortality (52%) over a 2-day period. Mortality was 99% within a 6-day period. Clinical signs were depression followed shortly by death. Gross lesions observed in dead quails were congested lungs and, in a few cases, mottled livers. Histopathologic examination revealed severe, diffuse, heterophilic interstitial pneumonia and multifocal areas of hepatic and splenic necrosis with numerous intracellular and extracellular short bacterial rods. Serotype 3, 4, 15, 16, Pasteurella multocida, isolated from the index case, caused 50% mortality in experimentally inoculated bobwhite quails within 9 to 24 hours. This report indicates that pasteurellosis can cause peracute disease in bobwhite quails with very high mortality.     

Health status of northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) in eastern Kansas

The health status of wild northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) from Lyon County, Kansas, was evaluated by conducting comprehensive health assessments on 25 birds. Gross lesions indicative of avian pox, ulcerative enteritis, and quail bronchitis were not present. Serologic tests for antibodies to Salmonella pullorum, Salmonella gallinarum, Pasteurella multocida, Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae, and avian adenoviruses were all negative. Intestinal coccidia (Eimeria spp.) were found in 36% of the birds. Only three species of helminth parasites were found: Dispharynx nasuta in two birds, Cyrnea colini in one bird, and larval Physaloptera sp. in four birds. Arthropod parasites (ticks, lice, mites, and/or chiggers) were present on 96% of the birds examined. Compared with wild bobwhite populations in the southeastern United States, the diversity, prevalence, and intensities of microbial and parasitic agents were low.     

Experimental reproduction of enteritis in bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) with Cryptosporidium and reovirus

Five-day-old bobwhite quails were inoculated with reovirus and Cryptosporidium previously isolated from the intestinal contents of young, commercially raised bobwhite quails experiencing severe enteritis. Quails inoculated with reovirus alone did not develop clinically apparent disease, infection was localized principally in the intestinal tract, and no lesions were detected. Quails inoculated with Cryptosporidium, alone or with reovirus, developed severe enteritis with high mortality and marked growth depression. Cryptosporidia caused blunting of intestinal villi and provoked a mononuclear cell response in the lamina propria. The severity of intestinal lesions correlated with numbers of parasites. An apparent synergistic effect in dually infected quails was indicated by enhanced Cryptosporidium oocyst shedding, greater numbers of cryptosporidia in the intestinal tracts, and systemic reovirus infection. In addition, multifocal liver necrosis was detected in dually infected quails but was absent in quails infected with only reovirus or Cryptosporidium. The results suggest that Cryptosporidium promoted systemic spread of reovirus, and reovirus intensified Cryptosporidium infection, but no significant synergistic effect on mortality or weight gain was detected. The most important agent in the naturally occurring acute enteritis of bobwhite quails was Cryptosporidium.     

Plasma pharmacokinetics of midazolam in chickens, turkeys, pheasants and bobwhite quail

In vivo plasma pharmacokinetics of midazolam hydrochloride (5 mg/kg i.v.) were determined in commercially raised broiler chickens, turkeys, ring-necked pheasants and bobwhite quail. Pharmacokinetic profiles of midazolam were similar for all four species, especially with regard to the area under the plasma drug concentration-time curve. Estimates of the half-life of elimination of midazolam were 0.42, 1.45, 1.90, and 9.71 h for turkeys, chickens, bobwhite quail, and pheasant, respectively. This was similar to the major metabolite (1-hydroxymidazolam). Elimination half-lives for 1-hydroxymidazolam were 1.35, 1.86, 1.97, and 13.97 h for turkey, chicken, bobwhite quail and pheasant, respectively. Elimination half-lives for 4-hydroxymidazolam were 0.76, 1.23, 2.85, and 13.82 h for chicken, turkey, pheasant, and bobwhite quail, respectively. In addition to traditional pharmacokinetic approaches to parameter estimation, a bootstrapping technique was employed to attempt to achieve more realistic approximations of the concentrations at later time-points.     

Mycobacteriosis in an American bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

Avian mycobacteriosis is an important disease in companion, captive, exotic, and wild birds worldwide. Mycobacterium avium is the most widely distributed and pathogenic organism causing tuberculous lesions in birds. Multiple factors including age, stress, immune status, and preexisting disease determine the pathogenicity of M. avium, and the disease can manifest itself in a variety of forms. Mycobacteriosis can cause severe losses in zoo aviaries, including the loss of rare and endangered bird species. We report a case of systemic avian mycobacteriosis in an adult, free-living male American bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) that presented to the Diagnostic Center for Population and Animal Health in November 2003.     

Plasmodium (Bennettinia) juxtanucleare infection in a captive white eared-pheasant (Crossoptilon crossoptilon) at a Japanese zoo

An adult male white eared-pheasant (Crossoptilon crossoptilon) at a Japanese zoo exhibited lethargy and emaciation. Microscopic examination of a blood smear revealed a haemosporidian parasitic infection. Based on the morphological characteristics and molecular analysis of the parasite, it was identified as Plasmodium (Bennettinia) juxtanucleare. This is the first report of P. juxtanucleare infection in bird species belonging to the genus Crossoptilon. Caution against avian malaria infection is required for the conservation of endangered bird species in zoos.     

Prevalence of cryptosporidiosis in dairy cattle,cattle-keeping families,their non-cattle-keeping neighbours and HIV-positive individuals in Dagoretti Division,Nairobi, Kenya

The breeding of wild animals for commercial purposes is becoming more frequent nowadays. This situation has led to an increase in contact rates between wild and domestic animals, with subsequent reciprocal transmission of parasites. In this study, we characterized the gastrointestinal and blood parasites of a group of 15 semi-captive guanacos (Lama guanicoe). We characterized gastrointestinal parasites by analyzing fecal samples through the sedimentation–flotation technique and hemoparasites by using blood smears stained with Giemsa. We found several gastrointestinal parasites including Nematoda and protozoans. The most frequently found parasites were Nematodirus sp. and Eimeria sp. In contrast with previous studies, neither Cestoda nor Fasciola were found. The only hemoparasite detected was Mycoplasma haemolamae, a parasite already described in llamas and alpacas. We conclude that the most frequent gastrointestinal parasites of semi-captive guanacos were nematodes and protozoans. Also, the hemoparasite M. haemolamae seems to be prevalent among captive populations of South American camelids. Finally, captive guanacos share several parasites with the traditional livestock. Therefore, keeping captive or semi-captive guanacos without an adequate sanitary protocol might have adverse consequences to adjacent traditional cattle farming and/or for wild animals.     

Non-typhi Salmonella serovars found in Mexican zoo animals

The aim of the present study was to determine the bacteriological prevalence of subclinical non-typhi Salmonella infections in zoo animals and to determine the most frequently isolated serovars of the bacteria. A total of 267 samples were analyzed, including fecal samples from zoo animals and rodents, insects (Musca domestica and Periplaneta americana) and samples of the zoo animal's food. Salmonella was detected in 11.6% of the samples analyzed. Characterization of the isolates was performed with serotyping and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. The following serovars were isolated: S. San Diego, S. Oranienburg, S. Weltevreden, S. Braenderup, S. Derby, S. 6,7, H:en x:- and S. 3,10, H:r:-. The isolates showed seven pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns with a Jaccard coefficient ?0.75 indicating a possible common origin. The prevalence of asymptomatic infections caused by Salmonella spp. in zoo animals was high. These findings demonstrate the diversity of Salmonella serovars in several captive wild animal species.     

Cytochrome P450-dependent metabolism of midazolam in hepatic microsomes from chickens, turkeys, pheasant and bobwhite quail

In vitro putative cytochrome P450 3A mediated activity, and inhibition thereof, were measured in four avian species using midazolam (MDZ) as a substrate and ketoconazole as an inhibitor. All species produced 1-hydroxymidazolam (1-OH MDZ) to a much greater extent than 4-hydroxymidazolam (4-OH MDZ). Calculated Vmaxapparent values for formation of 1-OH MDZ were 117+/-17, 239+/-108, 437+/-168, and 201+/-55 pmol/mg protein*min and Kmapparent values were 2.1+/-0.8, 2.4+/-1.6, 6.7+/-5.1 and 3.2+/-2.1 microm for chicken, turkey, pheasant and bobwhite quail, respectively. For the formation of 4-OH MDZ the Vmaxapparent values were 21+/-10, 94+/-46, 144+/-112, and 68+/-30 pmol/mg protein*min and Kmapparent values for 4-OH MDZ formation were 12.4+/-10.1, 18.0+/-10.8, 38.6+/-34.7 and 29.1+/-10.1 microm for chicken, turkey, pheasant and bobwhite quail, respectively. In all four species, ketoconazole inhibited the production of both major metabolites of MDZ, with 4-OH MDZ formation more sensitive to inhibition than 1-OH MDZ. Pheasant and bobwhite quail appeared most sensitive to ketoconazole inhibition.     

应用分配通道提高动物园场地利用率

动物园有限的面积与园中野生动物对环境条件的需求之间往往存在巨大的差距。应用分配通道提高动物园场地利用率可以缓解这一矛盾,并最终有利于提高动物福利。分配通道的应用可以划分为4个阶段,其发展趋势是将动物园中的所有展区联结成网络,从而使每种动物的生活和展示空间逐步接近动物生态领地模型,使动物园中有限的场地条件能够满足圈养野生动物的环境需求。     

Chlamydiosis in pen-raised bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) and chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) with high mortality

In a flock of 12,000 bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) and 7200 chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar), the owner had 100% morbidity and 40%-50% mortality in birds between the ages of 2 and 4 wk. Affected birds were stunted and anorexic and had yellow/green diarrhea. Two- and 4-wk-old birds submitted for necropsy all had slight nasal discharge. Histopathologic examination revealed mild (bobwhite) to severe (chukar) rhinitis. Immunohistochemistry was positive for Chlamydia psittaci in all birds. Chlamydia psittaci organisms were demonstrated histopathologically in hematoxylin and eosin and Gimenez-stained slides. Management sanitation and treatment with chlortetracycline stopped further excessive losses. The owners were also infected. Treatment by their local physician with tetracycline alleviated symptoms.     

Haematology of clinically normal and sick captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)

A retrospective analysis of haematological values from clinically normal captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) showed that the red cell count, haemoglobin level, packed cell volume and lymphocyte count were higher and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate and eosinophil count were lower in juveniles than in adults. Newborn animals were anaemic compared with juveniles and adults and had high reticulocyte counts. The values from healthy reindeer were used to identify abnormal haematological variations in a number of sick animals. It was shown that reindeer exhibit similar haemopathological responses to those of other artiodactyla, with increases in the erythrocyte sedimentation rate and fibrinogen level being of particular diagnostic significance. Eosinophilia was the only abnormal haematological finding in individuals with subclinical infections of intestinal parasites.     

Survey of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. infections in various animals at a zoo in Japan.

A total of 284 fecal samples of 89 species (43 mammalian species and 46 avian species) were examined for Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from 1999 to 2002. Each sample was collected at the zoo located at Osaka in Japan and examined by microscopy after performing the sucrose flotation method and by two immunofluorescent assay kits for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. Cryptosporidium spp. was found only in a raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), and Giardia spp. was detected in a mandarin duck (Aix galericulata) and two ruddy shelducks (Tadorna ferruginea). In this study, the prevalences of these parasites were found to be low. However, these results suggested that the infected animals could serve as a source of contamination for surface water. This is the first report about the survey of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. at a zoo in Japan.     

Seroepizootiological survey for selected viral infections in captive Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica) from western India.

Infectious diseases have been responsible for large-scale declines in many endangered animals. Disease outbreaks in small populations have probably led to the eventual extinction of such endangered animals in the wild. The endangered Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) population may also face such threats. This was evident from this study on captive Asiatic lions from western India, which were sampled from December 1998 to March 1999. Fifty-six Asiatic lions, including 17 hybrid lions (Afro-Asian crosses) from six captive centers in western India, were tested for antibodies against canine distemper virus (CDV), feline parvovirus (FPV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), and feline leukemia viral (FeLV) antigen. Agar gel immunodiffusion test and dot immunobinding assay were employed for CDV and FPV antibody detection. Commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits were used for FIV antibody and FeLV antigen detection. Forty-nine of 56 lions (87.5%) were positive for CDV. All 56 (100%) lions were positive for FPV antibodies. There were no detectable levels of FIV antibodies and FeLV antigens. It was observed that CDV and FPV, two viruses known to cause high mortality in captive carnivores, were widely prevalent in these captive Asiatic lions. It is suggested that these seropositive animals will have the potential to pose a risk of infection to other seronegative animals. Hence, it is imperative to carefully consider any movement, translocation, or reintroduction of these animals to new regions. It is also recommended that these animals be required to undergo standard quarantine and disease screening protocols. The lack of exposure to pathogens, such as FIV and FeLV, would also be a risk, and, hence, identification of reservoirs and screening of in-contact animals is highly recommended. Vaccinations must be considered, using killed or other suitable viral vaccines, which have been proved to be safe, effective, and efficacious in endangered felids.     

Molecular evidence for the infection of zoo chimpanzees by pig Ascaris

We here describe the transmission of the pig roundworm, Ascaris suum to chimpanzees maintained in the Copenhagen Zoo, Denmark. Using a technique for whole genome fingerprinting, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and the technique PCR restricted fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) of the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA, the worms from the chimpanzees were compared with Ascaris spp obtained from humans and pigs in order to identify the source of the infection. By the use of different distance and clustering based methods on the AFLP data set the worms from the chimpanzees were assigned to the same cluster as that of the worms from pigs. The PCR-RFLP analysis supported the AFLP results. Therefore, the zoo chimpanzees have required Ascaris infections by cross-infection from pigs. Pigs as a potential source of Ascaris infections for both captive and wild chimpanzees and other animals, therefore needs to be considered and appropriate steps taken to prevent such infection.     

Parasitic zoonotic disease agents in human and animal drinking water

Human- and veterinary important parasites of the subkingdom of protozoans and helminths infect humans and animals by ingestion of parasites in contaminated water. The parasites are excreted from the body of infected humans, livestock, zoo animals, companion animals or wild animals in the feces. Recreational waters, agricultural practices and wild animals serve as vehicles of transmission of the parasites in the water supplies. The following topics are addressed: a) the life cycles of parasitic diseases-causing agents with proven or potential transmission via water b) the development and the current research status of the analytical techniques for the detection of parasitic diseases-causing agents from water c) the occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface water supplies and in treated water d) the possible water sources and transmission ways of the parasites into the water supplies e) the behaviour and the possibilities for the removal or elimination of the parasites by water treatment.     

Intestinal cryptosporidiosis and reovirus isolation from bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) with enteritis

An acute enteric disease of young pen-raised bobwhite quails was studied. Affected quails had white, watery diarrhea accompanied by dehydration and subsequent death. Mortality from hatch to 17 days of age ranged from 30 to 45% in the three flocks examined. Small intestines were thin-walled and distended with fluid and gas. Microscopic lesions in the intestinal tract consisted of villus atrophy, villus fusion, and sloughing of cells at the tip of the villi in duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Cryptosporidium sp. and reovirus were identified in affected quails.     

Helminthiasis and toxoplasmosis among exotic mammals at the Santiago National Zoo

Parasitologic evaluations of 112 fecal specimens from 292 mammals from the Santiago National Zoo (36 specimens were pooled specimens from greater than or equal to 2 animals) indicated that 51 mammals had protozoa or helminths in their feces. Most of the parasites in the herbivorous species were trichurids and strongylids, whereas most of the parasites in the carnivorous species were ascarids. Coccidia spp and Giardia spp were the most frequently detected protozoans in the mammals evaluated. Of 127 captive mammals serologically evaluated for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii (indirect hemagglutination test), 35 (27.5%) were positive for T gondii: 7 (46.6%) of 15 carnivores, 24 (25.2%) of 95 artyodactyls, and 4 (22.5%) of 17 nonhuman primates. Antibodies against T gondii also were found in 8 of 10 domestic cats captured within the zoo and in 6 of 13 volunteer zookeepers.     

动物园兽医的使命及发展思路

野生动物的移地保护和保护教育是现代动物园的主要功能,兽医在保障野生动物健康方面承担着重要的使命。动物园兽医在本质上是医学的一个特殊分枝,由于野生动物及其疾病种类的复杂性和个人精力、能力的局限性,动物园兽医的职业化和专业化是提高野生动物健康保障能力的根本出路;应激因素对圈养动物的健康造成很大的威胁,而适度驯化则可以最大限度地减少应激的发生;在国内建立区域动物园兽医服务网络、建立兽医行业内部信息交流平台是提高动物园兽医行业整体水平的基本思路：正确的疾病诊断和规范的处方,以及全面关注动物的基本需求、积极主动的疾病防疫等在兽医日常工作中占有同等重要的地位。由于兽医掌握了动物发病和死亡的第一手资料,动物园应当为兽医参与动物管理提供条件。