Effects of Oat Grain Hydrothermal Treatments on Wheat-Oat Flour Dough Properties and Breadbaking Quality

Hydrothermal treatments, which are routine in oat processing, have profound effects on oat flour dough rheological properties. The influence of roasting and steam treatments of oat grain on dough mixing and breadbaking properties was investigated when hydrothermally treated oat flour was blended with wheat flour. Roasting of oat grain (105°C, 2 hr) resulted in oat flours that were highly detrimental to wheat flour dough mixing properties and breadbaking quality. Steaming (105°C, 20 min) or a combination of roasting and steaming of oat grain significantly improved the breadbaking potential of the oat flours. The addition of oat flours increased water absorption and mixing requirements of the wheat flour dough and also decreased bread loaf volume. However, at the 10% substitution level, steamed oat flours exhibited only a gluten dilution effect on bread loaf volume when wheat starch was used as a reference. Oat flour in the breadbaking system decreased the retrogradation rate of bread crumb starch. The results indicate that adequate hydrothermal treatments of oat grain are necessary for oat flour breadbaking applications. Steamed oat flours used at a 10% level retarded bread staling without adversely affecting the loaf volume.     

Effect of Dough Processing Conditions and DATEM on Norwegian Hearth Bread Prepared from Frozen Dough

The objective of this study was to examine treatments that directly influence Norwegian lean doughs destined to be frozen. Therefore a strip-block experimental design with four dough treatment factors (wheat flour blend, diacetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglycerides [DATEM], water absorption, and dough temperature) and two storage factors (frozen storage time and thawing time) was used. Four levels were selected for frozen storage time and two levels were selected for the remaining factors. After frozen storage (2–70 days), the doughs were thawed and baked. Principal component analysis showed that to obtain a high loaf volume and bread score after freezing, a high dough temperature after mixing (27°C) was essential. The highest form ratio (height/width) level was obtained after 28 days of frozen storage and with a short thawing time (6 hr). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of dough treatments showed that an increase in dough temperature from 20 to 27°C after mixing resulted in a significant increase in loaf volume (1,653 to 2,264 mL), form ratio (0.64 to 0.69), and bread score (1.7 to 3.2), and a reduction in loaf weight (518.4 to 512.5 g) and crumb score (7.9 to 5.9, i.e., a more open bread crumb). Also, the addition of DATEM significantly increased loaf volume (1,835 to 2,081 mL), form ratio (0.64 to 0.69), and bread score (2.2 to 2.6). Frozen dough storage time significantly affected loaf volume, loaf weight, bread score, and crumb score. Increasing thawing time from 6 to 10 hr significantly increased loaf volume (1,855 to 2,121 mL), and reduced the form ratio (0.69 to 0.63) and loaf weight (516.8 to 511.4 g). ANOVA of the interaction between dough treatment and frozen storage time showed that decreasing water absorption significantly increased the loaf volume.     

Interrelationships of Flour,Dough, and Bread Properties Under Reduced Salt Level Conditions

The interrelationships between flour quality and the variability in the dough physical properties and bread loaf characteristics were investigated under reduced salt conditions using partial least squares (PLS) regression analysis. Seventy‐two percent of the variability in dough physical properties was explained by the flour quality using a three‐factor PLS model. Damaged starch content (DS), protein content, and farinograph dough development time (DDT) explained the variability of dough creep‐recovery behavior along PLS‐1. Farinograph absorption (FAB), located along PLS‐2, was strongly related to dough adhesiveness, in which adhesiveness was highly correlated to dough stickiness (r = 0.91). Eighty‐nine percent of the variability in bread loaf characteristics was explained by the flour quality using a four‐factor PLS model; the first two PLS factors explained 66% of the variability. The loaf volume was related to a high number of loaf cells, whose expansion resulted in a greater loaf height. The relation between loaf volume and loaf height was expressed more in PLS‐3 than PLS‐1 and PLS‐2. Mean cell wall thickness and mean cell diameter were closely related negatively along PLS‐1, for which DS and farinograph dough stability explained much of the variability in these loaf characteristics. Along the third PLS factor, FAB explained the variability in loaf weight.     

Bran Characteristics and Bread‐Baking Quality of Whole Grain Wheat Flour

Variations in physical and compositional bran characteristics among different sources and classes of wheat and their association with bread‐baking quality of whole grain wheat flour (WWF) were investigated with bran obtained from Quadrumat milling of 12 U.S. wheat varieties and Bühler milling of six Korean wheat varieties. Bran was characterized for composition including protein, fat, ash, dietary fiber, phenolics, and phytate. U.S. soft and club wheat brans were lower in insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) and phytate content (40.7–44.7% and 10.3–17.1 mg of phytate/g of bran, respectively) compared with U.S. hard wheat bran (46.0–51.3% and 16.5–22.2 mg of phytate/g of bran, respectively). Bran of various wheat varieties was blended with a hard red spring wheat flour at a ratio of 1:4 to prepare WWFs for determination of dough properties and bread‐baking quality. WWFs with U.S. hard wheat bran generally exhibited higher dough water absorption and longer dough mixing time, and they produced smaller loaf volume of bread than WWFs of U.S. soft and club wheat bran. WWFs of two U.S. hard wheat varieties (ID3735 and Scarlet) produced much smaller loaves of bread (<573 mL) than those of other U.S. hard wheat varieties (>625 mL). IDF content, phytate content, and water retention capacity of bran exhibited significant relationships with loaf volume of WWF bread, whereas no relationship was observed between protein content of bran and loaf volume of bread. It appears that U.S. soft and club wheat bran, probably owing to relatively low IDF and phytate contents, has smaller negative effects on mixing properties of WWF dough and loaf volume of bread than U.S. hard wheat bran.     

Impact of Wheat Fiber on Frozen Dough Shelf Life and Bread Quality

Freezing and prolonged frozen storage of dough results in constant deterioration in the overall quality of the final product. In this study the effect of wheat bran and wheat aleurone as sources of arabinoxylan (AX) on the quality of bread baked from yeasted frozen dough was investigated. Wheat fiber sources were milled to pass through a 0.5 mm screen, prehydrated for 15 min, and incorporated into refined wheat flour at 15% replacement level. Dough products were prepared from refined flour (control A), whole wheat flour (control B), aleurone composite flour (composite flour A), and bran composite flour (composite flour B) and stored at –18°C for 28 weeks. Dough samples were evaluated for breadmaking quality at zero time, 14 weeks, and 28 weeks of storage. Quality parameters evaluated were loaf weight, loaf specific volume, and crumb firmness. Composite flour bread samples showed the most resistance to freeze damage (less reduction in the overall product quality), indicating a possible role of some fiber components (e.g., AX) in minimizing water redistribution in the dough system and therefore lessening adverse modifications to the gluten structure. The data suggest that the shelf life of frozen dough and quality of obtained bread can be improved with the addition of an AX source.     

Modeling of Dough Mixing Profile Under Thermal and Nonthermal Constraint for Evaluation of Breadmaking Quality of Hard Spring Wheat Flour

This research was initiated to investigate associations between flour breadmaking traits and mixing and empirical dough rheological properties under thermal stress. Thirty hard spring wheat flour samples were analyzed by a Mixolab standard procedure. Mixolab profiles were divided into six different stages, and torque measurements of individual stages were modeled by nonlinear curve fitting using a compound of two solution searching procedures, multidimensional unconstrained nonlinear minimization and genetic algorithm. Mixing patterns followed exponential equations. Dough torque patterns under heat constraint, specifically dough thermal weakening and pasting profiles, were described by a sigmoid logistic equation as a function of time. Dough stability during heating appeared important for bread loaf volume increase from significant correlations between bread loaf volume and parameters generated from models of a dough thermal weakening stage. Multivariate continuum regression was employed to calibrate prediction models of baking traits using Mixolab parameters. Coefficients of determination estimated from prediction models and cross‐validation were greater than 0.98 for bake water absorption, mixing time, and bread loaf volume, indicating that the Mixolab parameters have a potential to enhance evaluation of flour breadmaking quality.     

Cooking,Roasting, and Fermentation of Chickpeas,Lentils, Peas,and Soybeans for Fortification of Leavened Bread

The effects of cooking, roasting, and fermentation on the composition and protein properties of grain legumes and the characteristics of dough and bread incorporated with legume flours were determined to identify an appropriate pretreatment. Oligosaccharide content of legumes was reduced by 76.2–96.9% by fermentation, 44.0–64.0% by roasting, and 28.4–70.1% by cooking. Cooking and roasting decreased protein solubility but improved in vitro protein digestibility. Mixograph absorption of wheat and legume flour blends increased from 50–52% for raw legumes to 68–76, 62–64, and 74–80% for cooked, roasted, and fermented ones, respectively. Bread dough with cooked or roasted legume flour was less sticky than that with raw or fermented legume flour. Loaf volume of bread baked from wheat and raw or roasted legume flour blends with or without gluten addition was consistently highest for chickpeas, less for peas and lentils, and lowest for soybeans. Roasted legume flour exhibited more appealing aroma and greater loaf volume of bread than cooked legume flour, and it appears to be the most appropriate preprocessing method for incorporation into bread.     

Pyranose Oxidase from Trametes multicolor Impacts Dough and Bread Microstructure

Pyranose oxidase (P₂O) improves wheat flour dough stability and bread quality. We related its effect on dough spread behavior to that on dough and bread crumb structure. Increasing P₂O addition levels gradually reduced dough flow. High P₂O addition levels further increased dough strength, significantly increased dough cell wall thickness, and decreased bread loaf volume. Taken together, affecting dough spread behavior impacts dough and bread (crumb) structure, and dough structure largely determines bread crumb structure.     

End-Use Quality of Flour from Rhyzopertha dominica Infested Wheat

The objective of this study was to evaluate how Rhyzopertha dominica infestation of stored wheat grain affects the rheological and baking properties of bread made with the milled flour. Wheat samples were infested with R. dominica and stored for up to 180 days at room temperature. Every 45 days, samples of wheat were collected and evaluated for insect population and flour yield. Flour milled from these wheat samples was evaluated for color reflectance, pH, fat acidity, and rheological properties which were measured by a farinograph. Loaves of bread were baked using a straight-dough procedure. Volume, height, and weight of the loaves were evaluated. None of the analyses performed on the control wheat flours showed any changes during the storage period, and they were similar to the initial wheat. The insect population increased during storage of the wheat up to 90 days, and the flour yield decreased with the storage up to 180 days. Flours from insect-infested wheat absorbed more water than did flours from control wheat. Dough stability and dough development times of infested flours decreased. Bread volume showed a progressive decline throughout the storage experiment. In conclusion, flour from insect-infested wheat exhibited changes in rheological properties such as dough stability, dough development times, water absorption, and mixing stability; bread had an offensive odor; and volume and loaf characteristics were negatively affected.     

The Rheo Extrusion Meter,a New Device for Measuring Wheat Flour Baking Absorption and Dough Consistency: Principle and Applications

The Rheo Extrusion Meter (REM) measures the time for vertical upward extrusion of wheat flour dough (subsequently referred to as extrusion time, ET) as a measure of its consistency. ET evidently increases with dough consistency. ETs are highly reproducible and sensitive to differences in dough moisture content. A single REM analysis takes 20 min, and the measured ET can be converted into the correct baking absorption at a given temperature. The heights of the extruded dough pieces are negatively correlated with straight‐dough bread loaf specific volume, both when comparing different flour samples and when adjusting moisture content of dough prepared from a given flour sample. The REM also allows determination of the consistency of complex wheat flour based systems and the impact of vital wheat gluten or ascorbic acid thereupon. Furthermore, in contrast to the farinograph, it detects the impact of endoxylanases hydrolyzing water‐extractable arabinoxylan on dough consistency.     

In Situ Production of Prebiotic AXOS by Hyperthermophilic Xylanase B from Thermotoga maritima in High‐Quality Bread

In situ enrichment of bread with arabinoxylan‐oligosaccharides (AXOS) through enzymic degradation of wheat flour arabinoxylan (AX) by the hyperthermophilic xylanase B from Thermotoga maritima (rXTMB) was studied. The xylanolytic activity of rXTMB during breadmaking was essentially restricted to the baking phase. This prevented problems with dough processability and bread quality that generally are associated with thorough hydrolysis of the flour AX during dough mixing and fermentation. rXTMB action did not affect loaf volume. Bread with a dry matter AXOS content of 1.5% was obtained. Further increase in bread AXOS levels was achieved by combining rXTMB with xylanases from Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis or Bacillus subtilis. Remarkably, such a combination synergistically increased the specific bread loaf volume. Assuming an average daily consumption of 180 g of fresh bread, the bread AXOS levels suffice to provide a substantial part of the AXOS intake leading to desired physiological effects in humans.     

Fermented Sorghum as a Functional Ingredient in Composite Breads

Whole sorghum flour was fermented (a five‐day natural lactic acid fermentation) and dried under forced draught at 60°C, and evaluated for its effect on sorghum and wheat composite bread quality. In comparison with unfermented sorghum flour, fermentation decreased the flour pH from 6.2 to 3.4, decreased total starch and water‐soluble proteins, and increased enzyme‐susceptible starch, total protein, and the in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD). Fermentation and drying did not decrease the pasting temperature of sorghum flour, but slightly increased its peak and final viscosity. In comparison with composite bread dough containing unfermented sorghum flour, fermented and dried sorghum flour decreased the pH of the dough from 5.8 to 4.9, increased bread volume by ≈4%, improved crumb structure, and slightly decreased crumb firmness. IVPD of the composite bread was also improved. Mixing wet fermented sorghum flour directly with wheat flour (sourdough‐type process) further increased loaf volume and weight and reduced crumb firmness, and simplified the breadmaking process. It appears that the low pH of fermented sorghum flour inactivated amylases and increased the viscosity of sorghum flour, thus improving the gas‐holding capacity of sorghum and wheat composite dough. Fermentation of sorghum flour, particularly in a sourdough breadmaking process, appears to have considerable potential for increasing sorghum utilization in bread.     

Effect of Wheat Genotype and Environment on Relationships Between Dough Extensibility and Breadmaking Quality

Dough extensibility affects processing ease, gas retention, and loaf volume of finished products. The Kieffer dough extensibility test was developed to assess extensibility of small dough samples and is therefore adapted for use in breeding programs. Information is lacking on relationships between wheat growing environments and dough properties measured by the Kieffer dough extensibility test. This study documents the variability of dough extensibility (Ext), maximum resistance to extension (Rmax), and area under the extensibility curve (Area) in relation to breadmaking quality, and the effect of wheat growing environments. Mixograph, Kieffer dough extensibility, and bake tests were performed on flour milled from 19 hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes grown during three growing seasons (2007‐2009) at six South Dakota locations. Although both genotype and environment had significant effects on Kieffer dough extensibility variables, environment represented the largest source of variation. Among genotype means, Area was most correlated (r = 0.63) with loaf volume, suggesting that by selecting lines with increased Area, loaf volume should improve. Rmax was positively correlated (r = 0.58) with loaf volume among genotype means but negatively correlated (r = –0.80) among environmental means. Ext was positively correlated (r = 0.90) with loaf volume among environmental means. Weather variables were correlated with Rmax, Ext and loaf volume and therefore could help predict end‐use quality.     

Effects of Commercial Hydrolytic Enzyme Additives on Japanese‐Style Sponge and Dough Bread Properties and Processing Characteristics

The effects of increasing levels of eight commercial fungal enzymes enriched in four types of activity (α‐amylase, protease, xylanase, or cellulase) on Japanese‐style sponge and dough bread quality and processing characteristics have been studied using a Canadian red spring wheat straight‐grade flour. At optimum levels, the enriched α‐amylases, xylanases, and cellulases increased loaf volume and bread score and reduced crumb firmness, while the proteases only reduced crumb firmness. For α‐amylases, xylanases, and cellulases, optimum levels for crumb firmness were obtained at higher levels of addition than for loaf volume and bread score. At high levels of addition, all four enriched enzyme types reduced loaf volume and bread score and increased crumb firmness relative to optimum levels, with the proteases showing the most dramatic effects. α‐Amylases and cellulases had little impact on dough mixing requirements, while xylanases increased and proteases greatly reduced mixing requirements. All enzymes at optimum levels reduced sheeting work requirements, resulting in softer more pliable dough. Optimum bread properties for α‐amylases, xylanases, and cellulases were attained within a relatively narrow range of dough sheeting work values. This similarity in response suggests a dominant common nonspecific mechanism for their improver action, which is most likely related to water release and the resulting impact on physical dough properties.     

Effect of Wheat Bran on Dough Rheology and Final Quality of Chinese Steamed Bread

Wheat bran is a low‐cost by‐product abundantly produced by the wheat flour industry. As a staple food of China, Chinese steamed bread (CSB) represents about 40% of China's wheat consumption. This study investigated the effects of incorporating wheat bran into the CSB at different levels (5, 10, and 15%). The dough behavior was measured by analyzing rheological properties. Quality of CSB was analyzed from two perspectives: physical properties and nutritional quality. For physical properties, specific volume, loaf height, moisture, and texture were measured by 1 . The predicted glycemic response of the bread was analyzed by using an in vitro digestion method. The results illustrated that the incorporation of wheat bran into wheat flour reduced the extensibility of the dough, decreased specific volume, and increased bread hardness, gumminess, and chewiness. However, this study also showed that addition of wheat bran can decrease the predicted glycemic response of steamed bread by up to 39%.     

Effect of the Coenzymes NAD(P)(H) in Straight‐Dough Breadmaking on Protein Properties and Loaf Volume

The nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide coenzymes [NAD(P)(H)] are strong redox agents naturally present in wheat flour, and are indispensable cofactors in many redox reactions. Hence, it is not inconceivable that they affect gluten cross‐linking during breadmaking. We investigated the effect of increasing concentrations of NAD(P)(H) on gluten cross‐linking, dough properties, and bread volume using two flours of different breadmaking quality. Separate addition of the four nicotinamide coenzymes did not significantly affect mixograph properties. While addition of NAD⁺ hardly affected bread volume, supplementation with NADP(H) and NADH significantly decreased loaf volumes of breads made using flour of high breadmaking quality. Wheat flour incubation with NAD(P)H under anaerobic conditions increased wheat flour thiol content, while NAD(P)⁺ increased the extractability in SDS‐containing medium of the protein of the strong breadmaking flour. Based on the results, it was hypothesized that at least three reactions, competing for NAD(P)(H), occur during breadmaking that determine the final effect on protein, dough, and loaf properties. Next to coenzyme hydrolysis, the experiments pointed to coenzyme oxidation and NAD(P)(H) dependent redox reactions affecting protein properties.     

Effect of Physical States of Nonpolar Lipids on Rheology,Ultracentrifugation, and Microstructure of Wheat Flour Dough

In the previous study, we investigated effect of physical state of nonpolar lipids of gluten‐starch model dough. This experiment examined a real wheat flour dough system to assess the role of fat crystals in the breadmaking processes. These experiments were performed with a baking test and an investigation of wheat flour dough through rheological measurements (both large and small deformations), scanning electron microscopy, and ultracentrifugation. As a result, we found that the added oil was absorbed in the gluten structure, causing the aggregation of the gluten, which gave rise to more elastic behavior. In contrast, solid fat seemed to be distributed uniformly between the starch granules in the dough, reducing the friction between the starch granules and facilitating thin gluten gel layers. These properties lead to the lower G′ value and the increased viscous behavior, which yields an increase in loaf volume. In addition, the supposed mechanism behind the large loaf volume described in the previous study was that fat provides a uniform distribution of the dough components, and that the dough can thus expand easily, resulting in a larger loaf volume, which was supported in the wheat flour dough system. In conclusion, we found that thin, expandable gluten films and the uniform dispersion of gluten and starch granules in the dough are prerequisites for attaining better baking performance.     

Solvent Retention Capacity Values in Relation to Hard Winter Wheat and Flour Properties and Straight‐Dough Breadmaking Quality

Solvent retention capacity (SRC) was investigated in assessing the end use quality of hard winter wheat (HWW). The four SRC values of 116 HWW flours were determined using 5% lactic acid, 50% sucrose, 5% sodium carbonate, and distilled water. The SRC values were greatly affected by wheat and flour protein contents, and showed significant linear correlations with 1,000‐kernel weight and single kernel weight, size, and hardness. The 5% lactic acid SRC value showed the highest correlation (r = 0.83, P < 0.0001) with straight‐dough bread volume, followed by 50% sucrose, and least by distilled water. We found that the 5% lactic acid SRC value differentiated the quality of protein relating to loaf volume. When we selected a set of flours that had a narrow range of protein content of 12–13% (n = 37) from the 116 flours, flour protein content was not significantly correlated with loaf volume. The 5% lactic acid SRC value, however, showed a significant correlation (r = 0.84, P < 0.0001) with loaf volume. The 5% lactic acid SRC value was significantly correlated with SDS‐sedimentation volume (r = 0.83, P < 0.0001). The SDS‐sedimentation test showed a similar capability to 5% lactic acid SRC, correlating significantly with loaf volume for flours with similar protein content (r = 0.72, P < 0.0001). Prediction models for loaf volume were derived from a series of wheat and flour quality parameters. The inclusion of 5% lactic acid SRC values in the prediction model improved R² = 0.778 and root mean square error (RMSE) of 57.2 from R² = 0.609 and RMSE = 75.6, respectively, from the prediction model developed with the single kernel characterization system (SKCS) and near‐infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy data. The prediction models were tested with three validation sets with different protein ranges and confirmed that the 5% lactic acid SRC test is valuable in predicting the loaf volume of bread from a HWW flour, especially for flours with similar protein contents.     

Exploring Functionality of Hard and Soft Wheat Flour Blends for Improved End‐Use Quality Prediction

Blending wheat or flour to meet end‐use requirements is a critical part of the production process to deliver consistent quality products. The functionality of commercial Canadian hard red wheat flour (HWF) and soft red wheat flour (SWF) blends with ratios of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100 (HWF/SWF, w/w) was investigated with new and standard methods to discern which functional properties may be indicators of bread quality and processing performance. Rheological characteristics including farinograph water absorption behavior, dough development time (DT), stability, extensigraph extensibility, and gluten aggregation of wheat flours were significantly influenced by the proportion of HWF in blends of SWF and HWF (P < 0.05). The SWF content in the blends had negative linear relationships with the protein content, lactic acid solvent retention capacity, water absorption, and GlutoPeak peak torque. Polynomial relationships were observed for sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation volume, DT, stability, extensibility, resistance, GlutoPeak peak time, and bread loaf volume with the amount of SWF in blends. The results indicate that linear responses may be more closely tied to protein content, whereas polynomial responses may be more indicative of protein quality and baking performance. The GlutoPeak peak time was sensitive to the addition of HWF in the blends, showing a significant change in gluten aggregation kinetics between the 0 and 25% HWF samples. Principal component analysis (PCA) confirmed that GlutoPeak peak time was a significant factor in differentiating the 0% HWF. Protein secondary structures identified in the final baked bread were also PCA factors differentiating the 0% HWF sample. Although the 0% bread sample did not deviate from the observed polynomial trend for bread loaf volume, the differences in bread protein secondary structures may translate into differences in processing tolerance in commercial settings.     

Fortification of Bread with Hulls and Cotyledon Fibers Isolated from Peas,Lentils, and Chickpeas

Bread was prepared from wheat flour and wheat flour fortified with either 3, 5, and 7% legume hulls or insoluble cotyledon fibers, or with 1, 3, and 5% soluble cotyledon fibers isolated from pea, lentil, and chickpea flours. Incorporation of hulls or insoluble fibers resulted in increases in dough water absorption by 2–16% and increases in mixing time of dough by 22–147 sec. Addition of soluble fiber resulted in decreases in water absorption as the substitution rate increased and similar mixing times to the control dough. Loaf weights of breads containing hulls or insoluble fibers were generally higher than that of control bread at 149.4–166.5 g. However, the loaf volume of breads fortified with legume hulls and fibers (685–1,010 mL) was lower than that of the control bread (1,021 mL). Breads containing soluble fibers were more attractive in terms of crumb uniformity and color than breads containing either hulls or insoluble fibers. Breads fortified with legume hulls and fibers were higher in moisture content than control bread regardless of the type, source, or fortification rate. Bread fortified with up to 7% hulls or insoluble cotyledon fibers or up to 3% soluble cotyledon fibers, with the exception of 7% insoluble pea fiber, exhibited similar firmness after seven days of storage compared with the control bread, despite their smaller loaf volume. Breads containing hull fibers exhibited the lowest starch transition enthalpies as determined by DSC after seven days of storage, while the starch transition enthalpies of breads containing added soluble or insoluble fiber were not significantly different from the control bread.