生态设计在城市景观设计中的应用

概述生态设计理念发展历程,讨论我国景观设计中的生态问题与解决方法,以及当代景观设计的生态设计原则、常用手法。     

A decision-making framework for promoting the optimum design and planning of Nature-based Solutions at local scale

Urbanization is a key driver of land use/land cover changes climate change. It produces a reduction in natural capital with alteration to the energy budget of land, air ventilation and land surface temperature. The urban morphology derived from the combination of natural capital and human-derived capital is important in urban ecosystem services (UESs) provisioning to mitigate the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. Here we report a decision-making framework starting from an applicative case study to assess UESs and promote the best design and planning of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) at local scale. The human thermal comfort has been chosen here as a surrogate to estimate climate regulation as a priority UES in mitigating UHI. The analysis of human thermal comfort in different urban neighbourhood planning scenarios of a city located in Southern Italy has been carried out using the microclimate model ENVI-met. The analysis has been developed to highlight the variation in human thermal comfort in terms of Physiological Equivalent Temperature index (PET) between past agricultural scenarios (no longer more present), current state and several proposed urban scenarios. Such new scenarios have been developed by considering different building arrangements according to municipal planning rules of the city and choosing different types of NbS composition and structure. The analysis has allowed to identify the best scenario characterized by the presence of a community garden with olive groves and estimate the capacity of NbS to reduce the human thermal comfort by about 3.5ºC and improve the PET in selected locations within the current state. In accordance with the aim and topics of the Special Issue, this study shows how such a framework can be useful to support decision-making processes in choosing the best strategy in terms of urban plans and thus making the urban transformation process more sustainable, contributing to assessing the global targets of the 2030 Agenda at local scale.     

A comparison of metrics predicting landscape connectivity for a highly interactive species along an urban gradient in Colorado, USA

Many organisms persist in fragmented habitat where movement between patches is essential for long-term demographic and genetic stability. In the absence of direct observation of movement, connectivity or isolation metrics are useful to characterize potential patch-level connectivity. However, multiple metrics exist at varying levels of complexity, and empirical data on species distribution are rarely used to compare performance of metrics. We compared 12 connectivity metrics of varying degrees of complexity to determine which metric best predicts the distribution of prairie dog colonies along an urban gradient of 385 isolated habitat patches in Denver, Colorado, USA. We found that a modified version of the incidence function model including area-weighting of patches and a cost-weighted distance surface best predicted occupancy, where we assumed roads were fairly impermeable to movement, and low-lying drainages provided dispersal corridors. We also found this result to be robust to a range of cost weight parameters. Our results suggest that metrics should incorporate both patch area and the composition of the surrounding matrix. These results provide guidance for improved landscape habitat modeling in fragmented landscapes and can help identify target habitat for conservation and management of prairie dogs in urban systems.     

Three decades of urban forestry in China

Urban forestry has been formally recognized as a codified academic discipline in China’s higher education since 1992. This short communication attempts to revisit the emergence and development of urban forestry in China over the last three decades. Despite the traditional disciplinary division existing between forestry (which focuses on forested landscapes in non-urbanized regions) and landscape architecture (which concerns about individual and collective plants in urbanized environments), urban forestry offers an interdisciplinary convergence point, drawing upon disciplinarily-specific understanding and expertise of both forestry and landscape architecture, that supersedes the urban-rural distinction and could be translated into flexible, integrative, and transdisciplinary approaches for the effective governance of urban and peri-urban forests. With the enrichment of empirical evidence from China’s unique socioeconomic context and the theoretical advancement of urban forestry, innovative practical initiatives like “National Forest City” successfully transform urban forestry knowledge into on-the-ground practices. While China’s unprecedented urbanization has been accompanied by social and environmental problems calling for solutions wherein urban forestry can contribute, it offers a fertile ground for further advancing the development of urban forestry.     

A gradient analysis of urban landscape pattern: a case study from the Phoenix metropolitan region,Arizona, USA

Landscape Ecology - Urbanization is arguably the most dramatic form of land transformation that profoundly influences biological diversity and human life. Quantifying landscape pattern and its...     

Nature as a model for large-scale planting design – Least-difference method

An objective and systematic method for large-scale planting design was previously published. It involved multiple regression equations relating species abundance to topo-edaphic variables in a native (model) plant community, calculated from survey data collected by forestry departments. The method is appropriate for the number of sample plots currently surveyed in plant communities. With the imminent availability of a large volume of data through remote sensing technology, another method is presented in this article that emulates nature more closely and is not based on a mathematical model. It involves finding sample plots in the model community with topo-edaphic variables similar to those of the grid cells on the project site and assigning their species composition to the grid cells. Similarities of corresponding pairs of variables are decided using comparison tolerances for the variables, calculated based on their relative importance in species distribution in the model community.     

Key issues and research priorities in landscape ecology: An idiosyncratic synthesis

Landscape ecology has made tremendous progress in recent decades, but as a rapidly developing discipline it is faced with new problems and challenges. To identify the key issues and research priorities in landscape ecology, a special session entitled “Top 10 List for Landscape Ecology in the 21st Century” was organized at the 16th Annual Symposium of the US Regional Association of International Association of Landscape Ecology, held at Arizona State University (Tempe, Arizona, USA) during April 25–29, 2001. A group of leading landscape ecologists were invited to present their views. This paper is intended to be a synthesis, but not necessarily a consensus, of the special session. We have organized the diverse and wide-ranging perspectives into six general key issues and 10 priority research topics. The key issues are: (1) interdisciplinarity or transdisciplinarity, (2) integration between basic research and applications,(3) Conceptual and theoretical development, (4) education and training, (5)international scholarly communication and collaborations, and (6) outreach and communication with the public and decision makers. The top 10 research topics are: (1) ecological flows in landscape mosaics, (2) causes, processes, and consequences of land use and land cover change, (3) nonlinear dynamics and landscape complexity, (4) scaling, (5) methodological development, (6) relating landscape metrics to ecological processes, (7) integrating humans and their activities into landscape ecology, (8) optimization of landscape pattern, (9)landscape sustainability, and (10) data acquisition and accuracy assessment. We emphasize that, although this synthesis was based on the presentations at the“Top 10 List” session, it is not a document that has been agreed upon by each and every participant. Rather, we believe that it is reflective of the broad-scale vision of the collective as to where landscape ecology is now and where it may be going in future. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Landscape ecology as a theoretical basis for nature conservation

Conservation of representative biotopes, single species populations or biodiversity usually embraces two or more biotopes, and is often affected by surrounding croplands. The conclusions from landscape ecological studies can, therefore, offer important contributions to conservation, especially at early levels of landscape change or habitat fragmentation. Indicator and keystone species are useful for monitoring and managing fragmented biotopes, respectively. Communities as well as single species are affected by the juxtaposition of successional and climax biotopes, which influence climatic equability, seasonality, productivity and dispersal. Low levels of fragmentation may result in ill-functioning communities, and greater fragmentation may result in species losses and ultimately in the loss of whole communities. Fragmented habitats retain species with high reproductive and dispersal rates and generalized habitat selection. New combinations of interacting species will lead to trivialization of earlier habitat-specific interactions. Validation of these concepts was made with data from a Swedish research program on fragmented biotopes in production landscapes. General reserve selection and methods of management for preserving climax communities, single specialized species and high biodiversity are suggested.     

Linkages beyond borders: targeting spatial processes in fragmented urban landscapes

Management of ecosystems often focuses on specific species chosen for their habitat demand, public appeal, or levels of threat. We propose a complementary framework for choosing focal species, the mobile link concept, which allows managers to focus on spatial processes and deal with multi-scale ecological dynamics. Spatial processes are important for three reasons: maintenance, re-organization, and restoration of ecological values. We illustrate the framework with a case study of the Eurasian Jay, a mobile link species of importance for the oak forest regeneration in the Stockholm National Urban Park, Sweden, and its surroundings. The case study concludes with a conceptual model for how the framework can be applied in management. The model is based on a review of published data complemented with a seed predation experiment and mapping of Jay territories to reduce the risk of applying non-urban site-specific information in an urban setting. Our case study shows that the mobile link approach has several advantages: (1) Reducing the vulnerability of ecological functions to disturbances and fluctuations in resources allocated to management, (2) Reducing management costs by maintaining natural processes, and (3) Maintaining gene flow and genetic diversity at a landscape level. We argue that management that includes mobile link organisms is an important step towards the prevention of ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss in increasingly fragmented landscapes. Identifying and managing mobile links is a way to align management with the ecologically relevant scales in any landscape.     

Pseudoreplication: a sine qua non for regional ecology

We question whether classical experimentation is adequate for real progress in landscape or regional ecology. One cannot do classical experimentation unless one can replicate the treatment. There is conflict between the need to replicate and the need to study processes at appropriately large scales.Because of the difficulties in doing controlled field experiments at regional scales, we propose that landscape ecologists take greater advantage of natural field experiments. Natural experiments must be coordinated, standardized, and synchronized over space and through time, and will require the cooperation of multiple investigators. Distributed computer networks can help provide the automated region-wide monitoring which will supply natural experiments with pre-treatment data.Regions or landscapes need not be replicated, and indeed, cannot be. One can achieve a relational understanding between a system's response and environmental characteristics. This understanding is not definitive, but allows for the development of testable hypotheses, in the classical sense. The confounding of space, time, and/or other environmental factors in pseudoreplicated natural experiments only allows for the development of hypotheses - how-possibly explanations. Discrimination among competing hypotheses can be done at smaller scales and used to infer processes occurring at larger scales. Use of natural and controlled field experiments in complementary roles is a more promising approach than views of one or the other as methodologically inferior.     

风景园林规划设计课程实践性教学环节改革初探

风景园林规划设计课程是风景园林专业的核心课程,该课程中的实践性教学环节更是重中之重,其实施效果直接影响着本课程的教学效果和学生规划设计能力的提高。为促使浙江理工大学建筑工程学院风景园林专业持续向前健康发展,必须要使该课程的实践性教学环节与时俱进,紧跟行业发展态势,不断进行优化、改革,以适应行业的发展需求。     

芙蓉芰荷之滴沥幽兰白莲之芬芳——广州万亩果园湿地一期示范区规划设计探索

广州万亩果园湿地是罕见的城中次生湿地和农耕湿地,在该区域建设湿地公园将有助于加强对湿地资源的保护和合理利用,提升周边环境质量,开发旅游资源.结合该地域的条件和发展历史,探索通过最少的干扰和合理的工程手段,将该地域转化成水网纵横交错、果基密布、百鸟翔集、野趣盎然,具有岭南园林特色和亚热带自然风光的未来城市中心湿地,同时为日后万亩果林保护建设、开发管理提供参考.     

Site selection of urban wildlife sanctuaries for safeguarding indigenous biodiversity against increased predator pressures

Biodiversity loss in urban landscapes is a global challenge. Climate change is a major driving force behind biodiversity loss worldwide. Using Wellington, New Zealand as a research site, the aim of this research is to show how the most suitable patches of vegetation in urban landscapes can be identified, ranked, and prioritised as potential urban wildlife sanctuaries. This is in order to protect vulnerable indigenous fauna from some of the indirect impacts of climate change such as increased predator pressures and the spread of diseases among urban fauna caused by rising temperatures. A GIS-based multi-criteria analysis of spatial composition and configuration of patches of vegetation was undertaken with reference to eight factors affecting the quality of habitat patches and accordingly fauna behaviours in urban landscapes. Results show that Zealandia, the Wellington Botanic Garden, the Town Belt, and Otari-Wilton’s Bush are respectively the most important urban sites for establishing pest-free urban wildlife sanctuaries in the study area. This research reveals that patch size should not be considered as the single most important factor for the site selection of urban wildlife sanctuaries because the collective importance of other factors may outweigh the significance of patch size as a single criterion. Lessons learned in the course of this research can be applied in similar cases in New Zealand or internationally in order to facilitate the process of site selection for the establishment of urban wildlife sanctuaries in highly fragmented urban landscapes suffering from rising temperatures and other climatic changes.     

Green and calm: Modeling the relationships between noise pollution propagation and spatial patterns of urban structures and green covers

The mechanism of noise pollution propagation is considerably affected by 1) the type and configuration of its receiving environment and 2) the distance that sound waves pass to reach that environment. This study adopts a spatio-statistical approach to quantify and model associations between noise pollution levels and landscape metrics of land categories (built-up structures and urban green covers). Accordingly, noise levels were measured employing a sound pressure meter to quantify equivalent levels (Leq in dB A), in addition to their corresponding percentiles (L₁₀ and L₉₀). A collection of 30 sampling points were selected to measure noise data within the fall season and between 4 p.m. and 8 p.m. hours of the day. A hierarchical distance-sampling framework based on buffer areas with different radius (300 m, 600 m and 1 km) around each sampling point was compiled to measure composition and configuration metrics of land categories within each buffer area. The results derived from Pearson correlation analysis and multiple-linear regression models indicated that there is a distance-dependent relationship between the metrics of green areas and noise levels. We didn’t find remarkable distance-dependency between built-up structures and noise levels. Based on our new spatio-statistical approach, we conclude that more connected and compacted pattern of green areas closer to pollution centers can significantly alleviate the effects of noise propagation mechanism and appropriate pattern of built-up areas follows a low density distribution with coming green areas in between. Findings of this study highlight the potential of landscape ecology approach as an effective planning paradigm for designing greener and calmer cities.     

A multiple scale,function, and type approach to determine and improve Green Infrastructure of urban watersheds

Green Infrastructure (GI) connects different types of green features via various scales, thereby supporting urban biodiversity and service provision. This study presents a methodology capable of identifying multiple functions to assess GI in less-developed countries, where such methodologies are lacking. GI was assessed based on a high-resolution land use classification using both landscape metrics and spatial data within an urbanized region of San José, Costa Rica, at different scales (watershed, neighbourhood, object). Results showed highly fragmented green spaces (often <10 ha), typically unable to support high levels of biodiversity, along with a low amount of green space per inhabitant (<7.4 m²) within the watershed. Substantially higher tree cover (x6) and tree density (x5) were found in the greenest neighbourhood in comparison to the least green neighbourhood. Potential areas for new GI in the form of green roofs (4.03 ha), permeable pavement (27.3), and potential retention areas (85.3) were determined. Several green spaces (n = 11) were identified as promising GI sites with the potential to increase provision (18.6 m²/inhabitant). The adopted methodology demonstrates the potential of GI for increasing recreational green space access, runoff reduction, and flood retentions while supporting biodiversity, validating its utility in guiding decision-making and policy generation.     

Perception and preference of trees: A psychological contribution to tree species selection in urban areas

Trees can enhance human mental and physical well-being in urban environments. However, the tree benefits in urban planning are insufficiently recognised, and there is little knowledge on the tree characteristics that are relevant to humans and how they are evaluated. This paper presents perceptual tree parameters and their relation to human preferences. In study 1, participants sorted 24 tree images by perceived similarity. Hierarchical cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling (MDS) revealed the distinction between conifers and deciduous trees, crown shape, the two-dimensional crown size to trunk height ratio and the crown density as important to humans. In study 2, participants rated the trees based on their preferences. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that a high two-dimensional crown size to trunk height ratio and a high crown density predicted deciduous tree preferences. These findings are discussed in light of the savannah hypothesis and the Gestalt grouping principle of closure. In the task of tree selection and placement for urban areas, the identified perceptual tree parameters may allow for achieving a coherent overall picture with a simultaneous increase of tree species richness. Thus, urban landscape planning can apply the presented findings for increasing ecosystem health and residential satisfaction.     

有效营造城市特色景观研究

在经济全球化和信息高度发达的今天,城市文化出现多元化的现象,导致全球范围内的文化"趋同",各种设计形式和手法简单的如同潮流般被模仿.现从城市景观的基础理论入手,分析建设有城市特色景观的重要性和意义.在借鉴国外的理论研究和实践经验的基础上,探索营造城市特色景观的有效方法和途径.     

Constructing an Aims-Indicators-Methods framework for Green Space System Planning in China

Green Space System Planning (GSSP), taking all the green space within the city administrative area as a complete and comprehensive system, is a kind of official statutory planning that the Chinese government requires all the cities to draw up as a supplement for cities' Master Planning. It is the primary legal basis for green space protection and construction. Its temporal scale is 5 ∼ 20 years, and the planning area is gradually expanding from the urban area to the city area. With China's increasing emphasis on the ecological environment, green space development has been injected with more ecological functions. Simultaneously, the requirements for green space are added to the policy documents issued by several administrations about urban and rural planning. As a result, the qualitative and quantitative requirements for GSSP have become more complex than ever before. This article reviews and summarizes the laws, regulations, policy documents, and standards (national and industrial level) related to GSSP in the urban and rural planning field from the perspective of government requirements. The results show that the Chinese government's requirements for GSSP can be divided into three levels: mandatory, ecological, and promotional level. Furthermore, transforming the three-level requirements to their corresponding aims, this article constructed a hierarchical, multi-objective Aims-Indicators-Methods (AIM) framework of GSSP based on various aims and requirements. We hope that the AIM framework of GSSP can be more practical, which means regions can select an appropriate AIM framework according to their own environmental and economic conditions and simplify the preparation of GSSP.     

Redeveloping the urban forest: The effect of redevelopment and property-scale variables on tree removal and retention

The effects of urbanization on urban forest canopy cover has received significant consideration at broad scales, but little research has explored redevelopment-related influences on individual tree removal at a property scale. This study explores the effect of residential property redevelopment on individual trees in Christchurch, New Zealand. The study monitored 6966 trees on 450 residential properties between 2011 and 2015/16. Of the 450 properties, 321 underwent complete redevelopment during that time, while 129 were not redeveloped. The percentage of trees removed on redeveloped and non-redeveloped properties differed markedly, being 44% and 13.5%, respectively. A classification tree (CT) analysis was used to examine the effects of different combinations of 27 explanatory variables, describing land cover, spatial relationships, economic, and resident and household variables, on tree removal or retention on the properties. The best model included land cover, spatial, and economic variables (accuracy = 73.4%). The CT of the corresponding model shows that trees were most likely to be removed if they were within 1.4 m of a redeveloped building on a property with a capital value less than $1,060,000 NZ. The strongest predictor of tree retention was that the property was not redeveloped. The model predicted that trees were over three times as likely to be removed from a redeveloped property relative to a property that was not redeveloped. None of the seven resident and household variables were selected by the CT as important explanatory variables for tree removal or retention. These results provide insights into the factors that influence tree removal during redevelopment on residential properties, and highlight the need for effective tree protection during redevelopment.