Managing inequality or managing stocks? An ethnographic perspective on the governance of small‐scale fisheries

A growing volume of recent research on small‐scale fisheries governance has a focus on local perspectives and priorities of small‐scale fisherfolk. This paper develops from this local perspective a novel focus on what is a fundamental priority of many small‐scale fishers: concerns about inequality. The paper begins with a critical review of the literature on small‐scale fisheries governance and suggests how a focus on inequality can make a useful contribution. The paper uses case‐studies of small‐scale fisheries in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and the Philippines to highlight local priorities about inequality and the implications for small‐scale fisheries governance. PNG and the Philippines have very different social, political and environmental contexts, yet in both cases, local inequalities were a key pre‐occupation of fisherfolk and posed major challenges for fisheries governance. While in both of the case‐studies, fishers were aware of and keen to act on resource sustainability, this concern was overridden by concerns over: who obtained benefits from the fishery; who was responsible for resource degradation; and who should bear the costs of regulation. We conclude by discussing how our emphasis on the importance of inequality at a local level can potentially be integrated within many influential approaches to small‐scale fisheries governance.     

Small‐scale fisheries through the wellbeing lens

Despite longstanding recognition that small‐scale fisheries make multiple contributions to economies, societies and cultures, assessing these contributions and incorporating them into policy and decision‐making has suffered from a lack of a comprehensive integrating ‘lens’. This paper focuses on the concept of ‘wellbeing’ as a means to accomplish this integration, thereby unravelling and better assessing complex social and economic issues within the context of fisheries governance. We emphasize the relevance of the three key components of wellbeing – the material, relational and subjective dimensions, each of which is relevant to wellbeing at scales ranging from individual, household, community, fishery to human‐ecological systems as a whole. We review nine major approaches influential in shaping current thinking and practice on wellbeing: the economics of happiness, poverty, capabilities, gender, human rights, sustainable livelihoods, vulnerability, social capital, and social wellbeing. The concept of identity is a thread that runs through the relational and subjective components of social wellbeing, as well as several other approaches and thus emerges as a critical element of small‐scale fisheries that requires explicit recognition in governance analysis. A social wellbeing lens is applied to critically review a global body of literature discussing the social, economic and political dimensions of small‐scale fishing communities, seeking to understand the relevance and value addition of applying wellbeing concepts in small‐scale fisheries.     

Diagnosis and management of small-scale fisheries in developing countries

Small‐scale fisheries (SSF) make important but undervalued contributions to the economies of some of the world’s poorest countries. They also provide much of the animal protein needed by societies in which food security remains a pressing issue. Assessment and management of these fisheries is usually inadequate or absent and they continue to fall short of their potential as engines for development and social change. In this study, we bring together existing theory and methods to suggest a general scheme for diagnosing and managing SSF. This approach can be adapted to accommodate the diversity of these fisheries in the developing world. Many threats and solutions to the problems that beset SSF come from outside the domain of the fishery. Significant improvements in prospects for fisheries will require major changes in societal priorities and values, with consequent improvements in policy and governance. Changes in development policy and science reflect these imperatives but there remains a need for intra‐sectoral management that builds resilience and reduces vulnerability to those forces beyond the influence of small‐scale fishers.     

Empowerment and regulation – dilemmas in participatory fisheries science

Using a perspective from the sociology of knowledge, this study identifies some ‘dilemmas of participatory research’. We look at how social relationships between fishers and scientists develop around the exchange of fishers’ knowledge in particular institutional contexts. We survey the general types and global examples of fisher–scientist relationships in terms of how they approach the integration of fishers’ and scientists’ knowledge. Based on an empirical study of three European cases of participatory research, we then discuss five dilemmas that tend to characterize fisher–scientist relationships. These dilemmas centre on the relationship between fisheries research, fishery regulations and fishers as subjects of both regulation and participatory research endeavours. We argue that these dilemmas – experienced by both scientists and fishers – express an underlying tension between ‘empowering’ fishers to support the effective management of the fishing commons and the bureaucratic need to regulate the fishery as an industry.     

明晰渔业产权强化渔业管理

渔业产权是指海洋捕捞资源,如何分配准入权或其它权利,不同国家采取不同的手段来处理这一问题,明确界定和有效实施渔业产权,被大多数渔业经济学家视为最有效的措施之一。本文介绍了渔业产权的基本概念、类型及其特征,并指出强化我国渔业管理应构建怎样的渔业产权管理机制。     

Human behaviour: the key source of uncertainty in fisheries management

There is broad consensus that the main problem facing fisheries globally is too many boats chasing too few fish. Unfortunately it is also possible to argue that there are too many proposed solutions and not enough practical answers to improving fisheries management. There is a deepening divide between those who propose alternative regulatory controls on fishers, including establishing large areas permanently closed to fishing, and those who argue for better alignment of incentives combined with broad participation of resource users in fishery management decisions (in simple terms, between top down and bottom up systems of governance). However despite the choice of policy instruments used, a consistent outcome is that resource users behave in a manner that is often unintended by the designers of the management system. Hence whilst uncertainty is broadly recognized as a pervasive feature of fisheries management, to date most of the attention has focussed on only part of that uncertainty – scientific uncertainty about the status of exploited resources. The effect of uncertainty generated on the human side of fisheries science and management has received much less attention. However, the uncertainty generated by unexpected resource user behaviour is critical as it has unplanned consequences and leads to unintended management outcomes. Using empirical evidence of unexpected resource user behaviour and reviewing current responses to unexpected management outcomes, we identify different approaches that both improve prediction of human behaviour in fisheries systems and identify management measures that are more robust to these sources of uncertainty. However, unless the micro scale drivers of human behaviour that contribute to macro scale implementation uncertainty are communicated effectively to managers and considered more regularly and in greater depth, unanticipated responses to management actions will continue to undermine management systems and threaten the sustainability of fisheries.     

Are lobster fisheries being managed effectively? Examples from New Zealand and Nova Scotia

Abstract Based on performance, management of the New Zealand and Nova Scotia lobster fisheries can be considered successful, but management can be improved by clearer statements of objectives, more efficient mechanics of governance and quicker response to changes in stocks or fisheries. Principal tactics for lobster fishery management are individual transferable quotas and input controls in New Zealand and Nova Scotia respectively. Decision rules were considered important in both approaches and examples are provided of underperforming fisheries in the absence of decision rules. In Nova Scotia, strong fishers’ organisations and fishery scientists were effective agents for change, whereas fisher advisory committees operating by consensus were not. In New Zealand, the quota management system provided strong incentives for fishers to become involved in responsible management, to take longer‐term views of their resource and to take major management action on their own.     

Balanced harvesting can emerge from fishing decisions by individual fishers in a small‐scale fishery

Catching fish in proportion to their productivity, termed balanced harvesting, has been suggested as a basis for the ecosystem approach to fishing. Balanced harvesting has been criticized as uneconomical and unachievable because of the level of micromanagement it would require. Here, we investigate the consequences of allowing a fixed number of fishers in a small‐scale fishery to choose what size fish to attempt to catch. We examine this from a game‐theoretic perspective and test our predictions using an agent‐based model for fishers’ decisions coupled with a size‐spectrum model for the dynamics of a single fish species. We show that small‐scale gillnet fishers, operating without size‐based regulations, would end up catching small and large fish in proportion to their productivity, in other words balanced harvesting. This is significant because it shows that, far from being unachievable, balanced harvesting can emerge without external intervention under some circumstances. Controls are needed to prevent overfishing, but minimum size regulations alone are not sufficient to achieve this, and actually reduce the sustainable yield by confining fishing to a relatively unproductive part of the size‐spectrum. Our findings are particularly relevant for small‐scale fisheries in areas where there is poverty and malnutrition because here provision of biomass for food is more important than the market value of the catch.     

Sustainability of fishers’ communities in tropical island fisheries from the perspectives of resource use and management: a comparative study of Pohnpei (Micronesia), Mafia (Tanzania), and Guimaras (Philippines)

The fisheries structure, fishing gear, fishing vessels and their ownership, landing sites and markets, as well as fisheries management and fishers’ participation were surveyed in three tropical islands: Pohnpei (Micronesia), Mafia (Tanzania), and Guimaras (Philippines), covering 127 fishers. Labour-intensive gear, including purse seines and ring nets, characterised Mafia fisheries. Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) boats characterised Pohnpei fisheries, and canoes with nonmarine engines were characteristic of Guimaras fisheries. Wooden plank boats with large crews were only seen in Mafia. From a gear/vessel ownership perspective, the fisher categories present were gear fishers, gear-vessel fishers, employers, and casual labour fishers. Casual labour fishers and employers were only apparent in Mafia. The fisheries in Pohnpei had a relatively early age of entry, which was attributed to the urban markets available and family cohesion, while community organisation-based management of these fisheries was weak. Mafia and rural Guimaras fishers depended on middlemen, due to the distance of the market. Deteriorating subsistence-related fishery dependency means that the Guimaras fishers’ community is at risk. The high shared gear/vessel ownership rates and levels of affiliation to community organisations in Mafia reflect government’s timely community sustainability enhancement initiative. Based on our analyses, we propose the “fishers’ community sustainability” concept. The sustainability of a fisher’s community can be judged on (1) the age of entry to the fisheries, (2) the monetary profits made at fish markets and through marketing, (3) the cohesion among the fishers, and (4) the level of subsistence-related dependency on the fishery. The fishery is key to community sustainability, thus ensuring fishery-dependent life. It is essential to consider the above indicators of fishers’ community sustainability during fisheries development.     

Managing fisheries for human and food security

We evaluate the current status of the global marine fisheries using the frameworks of conflict, food security and vulnerability. Existing trends suggest that there is likely to be greater food insecurity and fisheries conflicts due to issues such as: declining fishery resources; a North–South divide in investment; changing consumption patterns; increasing reliance on fishery resources for coastal communities; and inescapable poverty traps creating by low net resource productivity and few alternatives. Consequently, managing fisheries from a food security perspective will become increasingly necessary, and we therefore briefly review fisheries from the perspective of food security and evaluate it using a vulnerability framework. Specifically, we describe three key components of vulnerability (exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity) for selected fisheries. This is followed by proposals to build the adaptive capacity of fisheries and recommendations to avoid future conflicts. Adaptive capacity attributes include assets, social flexibility and organization attributes, and learning. We present some key ways to build these aspects of the fishery to reduce the many potential environmental and social threats that increase the vulnerability of fisheries. Recommendations include fewer subsidies, reduced capital investment, precautionary management to minimize risks of ecosystem collapse, conservation of remaining resources, diversified portfolios of production and markets, and greater equity in contracts and distribution. Further, we recommend a contextual diagnostic and environmental justice framework to assess a range of options for fishery governance.     

Implementing ecosystem‐based management: evolution or revolution?

As a dominant paradigm, ecosystem‐based fisheries have to come to terms with uncertainty and complexity, an interdisciplinary visioning of management objectives, and putting humans back into the ecosystem. The goal of this article is to suggest that implementing ecosystem‐based management (EBM) has to be ‘revolutionary’ in the sense of going beyond conventional practices. It would require the use of multiple disciplines and multiple objectives, dealing with technically unresolvable management problems of complex adaptive systems and expanding scope from management to governance. Developing the governance toolbox would require expanding into new kinds of interaction unforeseen by the mid‐twentieth‐century fathers of fishery science – governance that may involve cooperative, multilevel management, partnerships, social learning and knowledge co‐production. In addition to incorporating relatively well‐known resilience, adaptive management and co‐management approaches, taking EBM to the next stage may include some of the following: conceptualizing EBM as a ‘wicked problem’; conceptualizing fisheries as social‐ecological systems; picking and choosing from an assortment of new governance approaches; and finding creative ways to handle complexity.     

The impact of subsidies upon fisheries management and sustainability: the case of the North Atlantic

This paper provides both an estimate and assessment of subsidies in fisheries in the North Atlantic. The subsidies are estimated, on the basis of data taken from an OECD study and the Sea Around US Project database, to be in the order of US$ 2.0–2.5 billion per year. The assessment of the impact of the subsidies upon resource management and sustainability requires an examination of the underlying economics of subsidies in fisheries. There is general agreement, to which we subscribe, that fisheries subsidies do great harm by exacerbating the problems arising from the ‘common pool’ aspects of capture fisheries. Many economists, however, believe it that, if the ‘common pool’ aspects of a fishery could be removed by, for example, establishing a full‐fledged property rights system, the negative impact of fisheries subsidies would prove to be trivial. This paper demonstrates that the aforementioned comfortable belief is unfounded. Fisheries subsidies can be seriously damaging, even if the ‘common pool’ aspects of the fishery are removed. There is also a widely held belief among economists and government officials that subsidies used for vessel decommissioning schemes, far from being harmful, actually have a beneficial impact upon resource management and sustainability, or are at worst, neutral. About 20% of the fisheries subsidies in the North Atlantic are directed towards these purposes. In this paper, we argue that these seemingly beneficial subsides can, in fact, be highly negative in their impact.     

The quality of compliance: investigating fishers’ responses towards regulation and authorities

A substantial amount of scientific effort goes into understanding and measuring compliance in fisheries. Understanding why, how and when fishers follow or violate rules is crucial for designing effective fishery policies that can halt overfishing. Non‐compliance was initially explained almost exclusively with reference to economic and self‐interested motivations. More recently, however, most explanations involve a combination of economic, social, political and environmental factors. Despite this recent development towards more holistic explanations, many scientists continue to frame the issue in binary terms: fishers either follow rules, or they don't. In this article we challenge this binary interpretation and focus attention on the diversity of fishers’ dispositions and perceptions that underpin compliant behaviour. To this aim we construct a typology of fishers’ responses towards regulation and authorities, thereby developing conceptual tools to understand different motivations and attitudes that underlie compliance outcomes. For this purpose, we identify the motivational postures of ‘creativity’ and ‘reluctance’, and then highlight their empirical relevance with an interview study of Swedish fishers. Reasons for studying the quality and diversity of fishers’ motivations and responses are not purely academic. Conceptualizing and observing the quality of compliance can help policymakers and managers gauge and anticipate the potentiality of non‐compliant fishing practices that may threaten the resilience of marine ecosystems.     

Understanding fisheries credit systems: potentials and pitfalls of managing catch efficiency

Following implementation in a range of other resource sectors, a number of credit‐like systems have been proposed for fisheries. But confusion exists over what constitutes these nascent ‘fisheries credit’ systems and how they operate. Based on a review of credit systems in other sectors, this study fills this gap by defining how credit systems function and what credits add to prevailing fisheries management. In doing so, we distinguish ‘mitigation’ and ‘behavioural’ fishery credits. Mitigation credits require resource users to compensate for unsustainable catches of target species, by‐catch species or damaging practices on the marine environment by investing in conservation in a biologically equivalent habitat or resource. Behavioural credit systems incentivize fishers to gradually change their fishing behaviour to more sustainable fishing methods by rewarding them with, for instance, extra fishing effort to compensate for less efficient but more sustainable fishing methods. The choice of credit system largely depends on the characteristics of specific fisheries and the management goals agreed upon by managers, scientists and the fishing industry. The study concludes that fisheries credit systems are different but complimentary to other forms of management by focusing on ‘catchability’ or gear efficiency in addition to effort or catch quota, affecting overall economic efficiency by setting specific goals as to how fish are caught. Credit systems therefore incentivize specific management interventions that can directly improve stock sustainability, conserve habitat and endangered species, or decrease by‐catch.     

The sea cucumber fishery in Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park follows global patterns of serial exploitation

Tropical sea cucumber fisheries follow a predictable pattern of serial depletion. Overfishing is exacerbated in developing countries where management systems lack capacity to control large numbers of fishers influenced by poverty. In contrast, the tropical sea cucumber fishery in Australia's World Heritage listed Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) is operating in a developed high‐income country with relatively few licensed fishers to manage. The development of this fishery is reviewed here in a meta‐analysis of catches from 1991 to 2011. The fishery expanded to replace high‐value teatfish species (Holothuria whitmaei and H. fuscogilva), fished heavily in initial stages of the fishery, with newly commercialized medium‐value species such as burying blackfish (Actinopyga spinea) and curryfish (Stichopus herrmanni). These two species now constitute 80% of total catch. The annual average catch of burying blackfish was 208 tonnes years 2004–11 and curryfish catches increased rapidly at an average annual pace of 200% from 2007–11. This serial harvest pattern occurred in the absence of baseline studies and without independent resource assessments, information required to inform relevant harvest predictions and to determine fishery impacts. This situation does not support ecologically relevant and adaptive decision‐making in management and the unfolding catch patterns in the GBRMP follow those in low‐income developing countries. The missing knowledge and lack of data serve as arguments to support precautionary reductions in harvests and extending fallow periods in fishing zones.     

Strong fisheries management and governance positively impact ecosystem status

Fisheries have had major negative impacts on marine ecosystems, and effective fisheries management and governance are needed to achieve sustainable fisheries, biodiversity conservation goals and thus good ecosystem status. To date, the IndiSeas programme (Indicators for the Seas) has focussed on assessing the ecological impacts of fishing at the ecosystem scale using ecological indicators. Here, we explore fisheries ‘Management Effectiveness’ and ‘Governance Quality’ and relate this to ecosystem health and status. We developed a dedicated expert survey, focused at the ecosystem level, with a series of questions addressing aspects of management and governance, from an ecosystem‐based perspective, using objective and evidence‐based criteria. The survey was completed by ecosystem experts (managers and scientists) and results analysed using ranking and multivariate methods. Results were further examined for selected ecosystems, using expert knowledge, to explore the overall findings in greater depth. Higher scores for ‘Management Effectiveness’ and ‘Governance Quality’ were significantly and positively related to ecosystems with better ecological status. Key factors that point to success in delivering fisheries and conservation objectives were as follows: the use of reference points for management, frequent review of stock assessments, whether Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) catches were being accounted for and addressed, and the inclusion of stakeholders. Additionally, we found that the implementation of a long‐term management plan, including economic and social dimensions of fisheries in exploited ecosystems, was a key factor in successful, sustainable fisheries management. Our results support the thesis that good ecosystem‐based management and governance, sustainable fisheries and healthy ecosystems go together.     

The barefoot ecologist goes fishing

Haliotid (abalone) fisheries are comprised of small‐scale (<5 km²) stocks and serve as a model for many such fisheries. Extremely valuable to local fishing communities in aggregate, these micro‐stocks are myriad and complex to study, monitor, assess and manage. Micro‐stocks need assessment and management at local scales to prevent small components from suffering the tragedy of commons. This paper asks how can we ever hope to address the research and management needs of so many small resources? Community‐based and territorial rights‐based systems may help in sustaining these resources, but servicing the technical needs of many small communities of stakeholders raises problems. A new generation of ‘barefoot ecologists’ is envisaged to perform this task.     

The behavioural dynamics of fishers: management implications

In pursuing their livelihood, fishers develop strategies when faced with changes in regulations and other fishery conditions. Changes involve each individual in a decision‐making process governed by his/her own goals or constraints. Despite this reality, the complex dynamics of fishing has usually been ignored in designing management initiatives, which has contributed to management failures in many parts of the world. Fishers have generally been treated as fixed elements, with no consideration of individual attitudes based on their operating scales (geographical, ecological, social and economic) and personal goals. We review existing research on the social, economic and behavioural dynamics of fishing to provide insight into fisher behaviour and its implications for fisheries management. Emphasis is placed on fisher perception, and how fishers develop dynamic fishing tactics and strategies as an adaptive response to changes in resource abundance, environmental conditions and market or regulatory constraints. We conclude that knowledge of these dynamics is essential for effective management, and we discuss how such information can be collected, analysed and integrated into fisheries assessment and management. Particular emphasis is placed on small‐scale fisheries, but some examples from industrial fleets are provided to highlight similar issues in different types of fisheries.     

价值链视角下的山东省渔业发展研究

山东省渔业资源丰富,渔业经济产值居全国首位,但是渔业资源的过度开发以及持续的生态环境污染导致山东省渔业可持续发展面临严峻挑战。本文基于价值链视角对山东省渔业发展进行了分析,明确了山东省渔业价值链在各环节上的优势和劣势,并以此确立了延伸渔业产业价值链,转变渔业价值链增值方式的发展战略,据此提出建议:大力发展精品养殖业,压缩近海捕捞规模;重点推动渔业加工业向精加工、深加工方向发展;建设多层次的水产流通服务体系,着力发展休闲渔业。     

The neglected role of religion in fisheries management

Religion and spirituality have long played important roles in fishery systems around the world, and yet are often neglected in modern fisheries management and research. We review current literature and analyse the major small‐scale fishery on Lake Tanganyika, Africa, to highlight how religion may mediate fishing behaviours. Our study surveyed 154 fishers across 11 landing sites in Tanzania, followed by 15 semi‐structured interviews with key informants including fishery officers and local religious leaders. We identified key connections between religious beliefs/practices and fisher perceptions, behaviour and compliance with harvest restrictions and regulations. We demonstrate that better understanding and accounting for religious dimensions is critical for engaging with fishery stakeholders more effectively and managing global fisheries more sustainably.