Identifying,managing and monitoring conflicts between forest biodiversity conservation and other human interests in Europe

In this paper, circumstances where various human activities and interests clash with the conservation of forest biodiversity are examined, with particular focus on the drivers behind the conflicts. After identifying past and current human-related threats potentially leading to conflicts in forests, the paper will focus on conflict management and monitoring, with an emphasis on inclusionary stakeholder networks and a range of approaches towards sustainable land use. Three dimensions of conflicts are examined: substance (‘how things are’), procedure (‘how things are done’), and relationships (‘how people behave’). These relations will relate to three conflict management approaches: (1) technical, which may contribute to reduce or solve the conflict acting on the ‘substance’ dimension, (2) political, which may influence the ‘procedure’ dimension of the conflict establishing principles or rules, and (3) cultural, which may affect the ‘relationship’ dimension of the conflict. Finally, a general model of adaptive conflict management emphasising communication among the parties and a participatory approach that involves monitoring of the conflict resolution outcomes is proposed. The recognition that strong perceptions among stakeholders have the potential to aggravate conflicts is central to the concept of a inclusionary conflict management framework, improved communication between all stakeholders, and better awareness of the context of the conflicts is emphasised.     

Stakeholder perceptions,management and impacts of forestry conflicts in southern Sweden

ABSTRACT

Forests are under increasing pressure with increasing risk of conflicts between stakeholder groups with different interests in sustainable forest management (SFM). This study investigated the different dimensions of conflict as perceived by private forest owners and other stakeholders, and the likely impact of these pressures on SFM in a southern Swedish context. Data were collected through a mixed methods approach using qualitative in-depth individual semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and a quantitative survey (n?=?6–161), with questions on present and past conflicts, actors, drivers, acting, management and solutions. Stakeholders felt that in the past the conflicts were more about technical dimensions of forestry practice, and today more about the political and cultural dimensions of forestry issues. The most frequently mentioned reason for forest conflict was forest protection, especially woodland key habitats. In all conflicts, forest owners emphasised the importance of knowledge, responsibility and emotions. Other stakeholders did too, but with emotions less emphasised. In managing conflict, meetings, adaptation and education were stressed by stakeholders. Dialogue arenas on different levels are needed for all stakeholders. Governing bodies also need to realise the implication different approaches and strategies have on forest owners management.     

Owner-specific factors associated with conversion activity in secondary pine plantations

The conversion of secondary pine plantations into mixed broadleaf stands is considered to be an important mechanism in the process of sustainable forest management. The silvicultural process of forest conversion in ageing pine plantations is associated with active management aimed at inducing, steering or accelerating stand development. The aim of the present study was to investigate owner-specific factors – socio-demographic and forest-related characteristics, and motivation of ownership – influencing NIPF owners' active engagement in silvicultural conversion (henceforth referred to as ‘conversion activity’). The study relies on a survey of non-industrial private owners (n = 276) of pine plantations on poor sandy soils in Flanders (northern Belgium). The study revealed that NIPF owners, in general, make only minor contributions to forest conversion. Conversion activity (including thinning, making space for broadleaves, removing invasive species, clear-cut, planting) was rather low, but positively influenced by a number of factors. Private forest owners with clear motivations of ownership were more likely to engage in conversion activity. However, the nature of motivation was not very decisive as most of the items listed (with exception of land investment goals) had a positive influence. Furthermore, the conversion activity of owners called ‘economists’ did not significantly differ from those of ‘recreationists’, but ‘passive owners’ (those with unclear motivations of ownership) were less active. We thus suggest that it is the absence of clear motivations of ownership, rather than a particular ownership goal that would explain low conversion activity. Socio-demographics like age, gender and education, and also forest size had only marginal influence. But frequency of forest visits and proximity to the forest had a significant influence. As an overall conclusion from this study, we emphasize the importance for active forest management, and silvicultural conversion in particular, of forest owners being connected to their forest. In this sense, mental connectedness (motivation of ownership), as well as physical connectedness (living close to the forest and visiting it frequently) do matter.     

An object-oriented approach to assessing changes in tree cover in the Colorado Front Range 1938–1999

In the wake of numerous catastrophic wildfires, forest management policies have been implemented in recent years in the United States with the goals of reducing fire risk, including the National Fire Plan and the Healthy Forest Restoration Act. A key premise underlying these policies is that fire suppression has resulted in denser forests than were present historically that now have higher fire risk. To evaluate this premise for the northern Front Range, Colorado, we used object-oriented image analysis to compare change in tree cover delineated from historical and modern imagery. Historical photographs from 1938 and 1940 were scanned, orthorectified, and overlaid on Digital Orthoimagry Quarter Quadrangles (DOQQs) from 1999. Using an object-oriented image analysis technique, the photos were then finely segmented and classified into two classes: tree and non-tree. Trees are heterogeneous in appearance in black and white aerial photography, so we employed separate membership functions to identify four visually distinct types: ‘interior forest’, ‘isolated trees’, ‘dark forest’, and ‘edge forest’. Our classification strategy employed spatial relationships between objects in addition to spectral information, so that our classification is fairly robust to variations in illumination. Based on the classification of fine objects, we then calculated the percent tree cover within a larger set of objects for the two time periods. We estimate that average tree density across the study area increased minimally (4%) during the 60-year period, with considerable spatial variation across the landscape. The results of the analysis illustrate that, consistent with independent tree-ring evidence, the highest increase in tree density is in areas characterized by low initial density, south-facing slopes, low elevations, and ponderosa pine dominance. In contrast, the highest elevation areas dominated by mixed conifer and lodgepole pine forests revealed no significant change in tree cover. Furthermore, there is no significant difference between objects dominated by low, medium, and high departure from historical conditions, as classified in the Landfire Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) data product. The results of the study can help managers prioritize forest treatments aimed at restoring pre-suppression forest structure.     

Sustainable management regimes for Europe's forests — a projection with EFISCEN until 2050

In Europe, forest policy discussions are moving towards a European Union-wide strategy. This will further intensify the relations between European countries in the field of forests and forest management. European-wide forest planning and decision-making require that policy makers have insight into the long-term development of European forests under alternative regimes. The European Forest Information Scenario Model (EFISCEN) was used to make projections of the development of the European forests under four scenarios: (1) business as usual; (2) EFISCEN European timber trend studies (ETTS); (3) maximum sustainable production; and (4) multifunctional management. The simulations were carried out for 30 countries individually, i.e. harmonized scenarios were run, but the special circumstances and demands that play a role in each country were taken into account. The simulations covered 139.2 million ha increasing to 143 million ha in 2050. The initial year varied per country, but was mostly in the region of 1990. The average age of European forests was 57 years in 1990 with a mean growing stock of 142 m³ ha⁻¹. The results showed that the future European total fellings may vary between a stable amount of 400 million m³ year⁻¹ in the ‘business as usual’ scenario to 647 million m³ year⁻¹ in the ‘maximum sustainable production’ scenario. The other two scenarios incorporated a 9% gradual increase in fellings over the first 30 years of the simulation period (i.e. 0.3% year⁻¹). The average growing stock will rise to approximately 250 m³ ha⁻¹ in 2050, with the exception being the ‘maximum sustainable production’ scenario, in which the growing remains at approximately 137 m³ ha⁻¹. The average net annual increment remains at approximately 5 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ throughout the simulation period, almost irrespective of the scenario. In the multifunctional scenario, special attention was paid to nature values by increasing the area of strict reserves from 4 million ha in 1990 to 12.3 million ha in 2050 (8.6% of the total forest area). The assumed increase in fellings of 0.3% year⁻¹ appeared possible in combination with this area of reserves. The simulations showed that growing stock development and increment development differed very much for each country separately per scenario. Therefore, the results show a strong need for maintaining the national diversity that constitutes European forestry within harmonized European-wide forest management strategies. In this article, we address what the consequences of each scenario are for wood production, biodiversity, and environmental functions of the forest. The results provide policy makers with a challenge on whether to intervene in the ongoing trend of build-up of growing stock and whether to choose for biodiversity, for increased use of domestically produced wood products, or a combination of these, but spatially separated.     

Experiences from developing an integrated land-use planning approach for protected areas in the Lao PDR

While early efforts to establish protected areas often excluded local people, modern approaches in many countries now seek to involve local communities in ways that are appropriate to the objectives for the protected area. In the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), a protected area management system was established in 1993. In many cases, the new protected areas had land-use conflicts with inhabitants who depended on the areas for their living. This study was undertaken in a protected area in the northwest of the Lao PDR. The primary objective was to identify and gain experiences from a feasible approach for improvement and implementation of protected area management with a positive interaction between people and the natural environment. An integrated land-use planning approach was adopted. It included participatory methods for data capture and analysis, including the use of a simple simulation model, the ‘Area Production Model’ (APM) aiming at evaluating different options for land use and primary production. The outcome of the study was positive in the sense that this integrated land-use planning approach was found to be well adapted to the needs of the protected area management system.     

Rules for participation and negotiation and their possible influence on the content of a National Forest Programme

The participation of stakeholders in National Forest Programmes (NFPs) was internationally recommended by the IPF and IFF Proposals for Action. However, where rules for participation and negotiation are absent, unclear or unsuitable, substantive stakeholder involvement may be impeded. Starting from a survey of some relevant elements of rational choice, game, and negotiation theory, the paper outlines some of the problems associated with the concept of participation. Specifically, it discusses how NFP results may be influenced by the selection of participants, their self-organisation, their possible involvement in hierarchies, by co-ordination and decision rules within NFP discussion groups, and by the interrelation of these issues with participants’ bargaining power. The paper discusses how negotiations can be organised in order to surmount the obstacles to achieving a substantive participatory NFP.     

Short-term effects of retention felling at mire sites on boreal spiders and carabid beetles

Green-tree retention is an integral part of forest management in the boreal zone. Retention of small spruce mires, proposed as ‘key habitats’ for many forest organisms, is recommended while logging, but the efficiency of such practices for the maintenance of forest species is poorly understood. Hence, we studied boreal spiders and carabid beetles at 11 retained mire patches (up to 0.55 ha) in Eastern Finland during 1998–2001. The adjacent surrounding drier forests of the focal mires were clear-cut during the winter of 1998/1999. We evaluated the importance of micro-habitat type (retention, edge or clear-cut plot), time since logging, and retention-patch size in determining the assemblages of spiders and carabids. Following logging, species associated with forests and mires generally decreased both in the retained mire patches and in their adjacent clear-cuts. In a GLMM, the number of standing trees in a retention patch – a surrogate for retention-patch size – had no significant effect on most of the tested species, but plot type (retention patch, its edge or clear-cut) was significant for many species. Semi-open-habitat species and open-habitat specialists increased following logging, especially in the clear-cut plots but even within the retention patches. In contrast, mature-forest and moist-habitat specialists became significantly less abundant in clear-cuts than in retention patches following logging. Spider assemblages showed pre-harvest differences among the mires, their edges and adjacent drier forests, but the fauna of logged plots rapidly diverged from that of mire and edge plots. However, after a 1–2 summers time lag, the spider fauna of mires and edges changed toward clear-cuts. For spiders, the post-harvest sample heterogeneity was significantly lower in clear-cuts than in retention patches, including their edges. Carabid responses were generally ambiguous. Multivariate regression trees showed that the number of trees in a forest patch better determined the spider assemblage structure than study area, study year or micro-site type (retention patch, its edge or clear-cut), indicating a strong impact of logging. For carabids, however, the study area better determined the assemblage structure; the other factors were of minor importance. Our results suggest that, as the spider and carabid faunas of the retention patches had drastically changed following logging, (i) retention patches should be considerably larger than the studied size range to efficiently maintain a ‘mire core’ spider and carabid assemblage; (ii) the effect of logging may take years to appear; (iii) spiders were more sensitive to habitat change than carabids; and (iv) harvesting not only changes the relative abundances of forest- and open-habitat associated species but it may also locally decrease the faunal variation.     

The science/policy interface in logic-based evaluation of forest ecosystem sustainability

Numerous efforts around the world are underway to apply the Montreal criteria and indicators to assess the sustainability of temperate and boreal forests. In this paper, we describe a logic-based system for evaluating the sustainability of forests at regional and national levels. We believe that such a system can make evaluation of sustainability more consistent and transparent. This effort also makes two points abundantly clear: (1) a systematic way to organize expert judgment about ecological, economic, social and institutional relationships (here, using ‘fuzzy logic’) is crucial to building such a system and (2) that the structure of this logic-based system reflects a policy framework and a series of decisions about values and what is meant by ‘sustainability’.     

Developing and implementing participatory and ecosystem based multiple use forest management planning approach (ETÇAP): Yalnızçam case study

This paper explains the conceptual framework of ecosystem based multiple use forest management (ETÇAP) approach and its implementation in a case study area. The new management philosophy has four important pillars; integration of biodiversity conservation into forest management process, characterization and accommodation of multiple forest values, effective participation of stakeholders and the use of advanced information technologies and management science techniques. These components comprise a sound framework of a forest management planning system in Turkey as the ownership, land use policy, social structure and forest ecosystems are unique to the country. Among few implementation sites, some experiences from the case study area of Yanlızçam planning unit were documented to realize the performance of the concept. The liaison between the government institutions and major stakeholders is found necessary, and the effective use of geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) have been realized critically important to better communicate among stakeholders and generate precise database and the plan. The case study indicated that structured participation is an effective communication tool and has a better possibly to promote multiple use forest management rather than using participation as solo information gathering process. Primary challenges relate to the effectiveness of national conservation program, availability of coherent biodiversity data and adequacy of institutional capacity that involve awareness, training and common understanding of biodiversity and protected area concept; coordination among the related institutions and stakeholders, and willingness and enthusiasm of authorities to accept and implement the concept.     

Stakeholders' perceptions of consultations as tools for co-management — A case study of the forestry and reindeer herding sectors in northern Sweden

The forestry and reindeer herding sectors utilize the same land in northern Sweden, and adversely affect each other's productivity. The common pool resource character of this situation has made it difficult to find ways to resolve conflicts that could threaten the two sectors' continued co-existence. A consultation procedure that was introduced to reduce conflicts does not appear to be effective, since conflicts between the two actors still occur. One reason for this failure might be found in the power distribution between forestry and reindeer herding. Earlier research has shown that a co-management system in which the allocation of power between the stakeholders is uneven is difficult to maintain in the long term. However, it is unclear just how uneven the power distribution is between the two actors in this case, and the consequences the disparity might have for the viability and stability of the management system. Focusing on the power relations within the consultation procedures, this paper explores the potential of the present institutional system to take the different interests of the stakeholders into account and to use the consultation procedures as tools for co-managing the forest resources in northern Sweden.     

国内外自然保护地人兽冲突管控现状比较

人兽冲突是在有限的自然资源状况下人类社会发展所遇到的全球性问题，会同时对人类和野生动物造成不利影响。在当前趋势下，这种矛盾冲突正在激化。文中通过检索相关文献对国内外人兽冲突管控现状进行对比分析。结果表明，国内外有越来越多的学者关注人兽冲突问题；尽管人兽冲突的出现是多种因素综合作用的结果，但国内外的人兽冲突形式存在共性。在应对我国的人兽冲突问题时，应考虑将多学科的知识综合应用于制定解决方案；同时可借鉴国外的一些做法，由各利益相关方共同治理、共同出资，并加强与国际组织的交流合作。     

Implementation failure of the forest expansion policy in Flanders (Northern Belgium) and the policy learning potential

The current study is an illustrative example of intersectoral land conflicts in a highly populated region that resulted in the non-implementation of an already agreed-upon policy. More specifically, it evaluates the implementation of the forest expansion policy in Flanders (Northern Belgium) and assesses the potential to adjust current policy. The policy implementation analysis based on the variables checklist of the new top down models points out that the forest expansion program is not successful. This is mainly due to inconsistencies within the objectives and grant schemes used in agriculture and nature conservation policy and local resistance of the agricultural sector. The Advocacy Coalition Framework was used to examine the potential to adjust current policy. For the legislative changes, no adjustments were possible because two persistent coalitions, ‘continuity-oriented’ and ‘change-oriented’, with polarized core beliefs exist. The existence of these coalitions also emerged from a Detrended Correspondence Analysis of the binary table of all questioned topics. In contrast with the legislative changes, adjustment of forest grants would be possible. Hence, only less complicated policy adjustments seem possible for the Flemish forest expansion policy, and the outlook of this policy appears bleak.     

森林经营方案编制中的冲突与协调

阐述了在编制森林经营方案过程中遇到的冲突问题,通过分析冲突的起因和表现,指出我国森林经营方案编制中没有或较少有公众参与,各相关利益者之间缺少交流与沟通。通过对冲突中相关利益者的分析,提出了一套基于森林经营方案编制的公众参与程序,指出公众参与森林经营方案编制可协调冲突并能提高经营方案的质量和实践性。     

Palmito sustainability and economics in Brazil''s Atlantic coastal forest

A number of palm species produce edible palm hearts, or ‘palmito’ as it is called in Brazil. Palmito jussara (Euterpe edulis) is a favorite for both international export and Brazilian consumption. Except on private lands, extraction of wild jussara palmito (or just ‘palmito’) from Brazil's Atlantic Coastal Forest is illegal. Yet palmito extraction in this forest continues on a large scale because of profitability for palmito processors and merchants, ineffective government intervention, and relatively attractive earnings for low-income palmito harvesters (‘palmiteiros’).

Because most palmito cutting and transport is clandestine, virtually no information is available on the financial returns from palmito extraction. However, the question is central for discussions of sustainability in unmanaged vs. managed agro-ecological systems. While reliable data are impossible to obtain, we interviewed several individuals in Brazil in order to formulate scenarios of palmito production, prices, and costs. We simulate the uncertainties in assumptions and data to generate a range of estimates on the net value of palmito management alternatives.

Financial net present value (NPV) of palmito extraction is highly sensitive to the time value of money (discount rate). ‘Managed’ extraction is more attractive than unmanaged extraction at low discount rates. As the discount rate increases, the attractiveness of sustainable palmito management decreases. All scenarios suggest that palmito cutting is very lucrative, explaining current institutional problems in controlling its commerce.     

Competitiveness, systems of innovation and the learning economy: the forest sector in Costa Rica

The different sectors of the economy, and the forest sector in particular, must create innovations in order to survive and to be competitive. Scientific knowledge should be introduced and institutionalized into the forest processes, but also knowledge derived from other sources such as user producer relationships and others should be incorporated. A new concept is emerging that considers that the economy should learn not only from the new scientific knowledge but also from the rest of the processes. This concept is National Systems of Innovation (created in 1985 in the Scandinavian countries), however, here the concept is broadened of a Sustainable System of Innovation. This approach of sustainable systems of innovation (SSI), considers that the sources for innovation towards development, particularly sustainable development, are formal organisations (universities, research centres, or so), the productive structure (the economy), the institutional set-up (patterns of behaviour), the economy–ecology relationships (potential and limitations of the ecosystem for production) and the policies of the sector. Each one of these factors interact and feed each other. They cannot be seen independently nor static; on the contrary, they are dynamic and evolutionary, without any doubt including the ecosystem. Then, the process of learning from all these sources, which is the base for SSI, may produce ‘greener’ innovations, greener technologies and greener institutions. Innovations related to forest services from Costa Rica will illustrate these ideas.     

The impact of SFM-certification on forest product markets in Western Europe — an analysis using a forest sector simulation model

In the international discussion on labels for sustainably produced wood products based on the certification of sustainable forest management (SFM), little attention has been paid to what is probably the most crucial part of any market-based instrument: the potential impact on forest products markets. This paper analyses the potential impact of SFM-certification on forest products markets using a simulation model of the Western European forest sector. Two scenarios with assumptions regarding certification (chain-of-custody costs, timber supply reduction from certified forests) are projected for the period 1995–2015 and tested against the results of a base scenario (‘business as usual’). In general, the results show that rather modest changes are to be expected from SFM-certification in forest products markets. The market impact of a timber supply reduction from certified forest would be more distinct than the impacts of chain-of-custody costs. Industry gross profits would decrease more than production. Due to the large share of roundwood costs in total costs, the sawmill industry would be affected more by even small changes in raw-material prices than the panel and paper industry.     

Nutrient concentrations in roots, leaves and wood of seedling and mature sugar maple and American beech at two contrasting sites

Differences in sensitivity to soil conditions across tree species and developmental stage are important to predicting forest response to environmental change. This study was conducted to compare elemental concentrations in leaves, stems, and roots of (1) sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) seedlings vs. mature trees and (2) mature sugar maple vs. mature American beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.) in two sites that differ in soil base saturation and pH. Both sites are located in Huntington Forest, NY, USA; one site (hereafter ‘H’) has higher soil pH and Ca, Mg, and Mn concentrations than the other site (hereafter ‘L’). Sugar maple growth at H (14.8 cm² year⁻¹ per tree) was much greater than at L (8.6 cm² year⁻¹ per tree), but the growth of beech was not different between the two sites. Leaves, roots, and stem wood of mature beech trees and sugar maple seedlings and mature trees were sampled for nutrient analysis. Foliar Ca, K, and Al concentrations were positively correlated with soil elements, but Mn concentrations were negatively correlated. Sugar maple differed more than beech between sites in foliar K and Mn concentrations. Root Mg and P concentrations reflected soil chemistry differences, in contrast to foliar concentrations of Mg and P, which were indistinguishable between the sites. In sugar maple, seedlings differed more than in mature trees in nutrient concentrations in roots, especially for Mg and Mn. Although beech was not as responsive to nutrient availability as sugar maple in foliar and root nutrient concentrations, Ca and Mg concentrations in beech wood were higher in H (52% higher for Ca and 68% higher for Mg), while sugar maple did not differ between sites. Sugar maple regeneration failure on acidic soils in the same region is consistent with our finding that sugar maple seedlings were very sensitive to nutrient availability. This sensitivity could ultimately contribute to the replacement of sugar maple by American beech in regions of low pH and base cations if base cation leaching by anthropogenic deposition and tree harvesting continues.     

Forest management after the economic transition—at the crossroads between German and Scandinavian traditions

Germany and Scandinavia represent two paradigmatic forest management traditions, based on management for volume and management for profit, respectively. This study examines the prevailing silvicultural regimes and resulting economic outcomes in Germany and Sweden as benchmarks, and then corresponding analyses are performed for post-transition EU countries, represented by Poland, Lithuania and Latvia. The analyses reveal a regional gradient where Poland stands closest to the German tradition, Latvia goes through a “scandinavisation”, and Lithuania takes an intermediate position. Poland adheres to longer rotations and follows the principle of self-sufficiency, while economic efficiency has gained increased importance in Latvia. The observed gradient is likely to be sustained in the coming decades as the survey of key forest sector stakeholders reveals ideological patterns that correlate with the pace of reform of State forestry in Poland, Lithuania and Latvia.