Developmental alterations in the regulation of glucagon and insulin secretion in Holstein calves

Twenty-one Holstein bull calves were randomly assigned at birth to 3 groups. Two groups (each of 7 calves) were raised as follows: fed a milk diet alone or fed milk with grain supplementation after 2 weeks of age; studies were done when calves reached 4 weeks of age. The 3rd group was fed on milk with grain supplementation until weaning after which the calves were maintained on grain and pasture. These calves (older calves) were studied at 12 weeks of age. Either propionate (0.28 mmol/kg) or glucose (0.56 mmol/kg) was injected IV in a random order. Samples of blood were obtained from the calves before and immediately after injections were done and at 2, 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, and 60 minutes after secretagogue injection. Plasma was examined for glucose by a glucose oxidase procedure and for immunoreactive insulin (IRI) and glucagon (IRG) by radioimmunoassay. The IRI response to the injection of glucose was greater in older calves (P less than 0.02). Patterns of IRI secretion, as determined by heterogeneity of regression, showed age differences for both secretagogues (P less than 0.05). Base-line IRG was greater in milk/grain-fed calves than in milk-fed calves (P less than 0.05). Mean IRG response to propionate injection was higher (P less than 0.05) in milk/grain-fed calves than in milk-fed calves. Plasma glucose concentration increased in older calves, but decreased in milk-fed calves after propionate injection. The data indicate that maturation in the ruminant is accompanied by altered regulation of insulin and glucagon secretion.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Effect of nutrient intake on the development of the somatotropic axis and its responsiveness to GH in Holstein bull calves

We investigated the effect of increasing nutrient intake on the responsiveness of the GH/IGF-I system in calves fed a high-protein milk replacer. Fifty-four Holstein bull calves were fed one of three levels (low, medium, and high; n = 18 per treatment) of a 30% crude protein, 20% fat milk replacer to achieve target rates of gain of 0.50, 0.95, or 1.40 kg/d, respectively, for low, medium, and high. Six calves per treatment were slaughtered at approximately 65, 85, and 105 kg BW. Additionally, six calves were slaughtered at 1 d of age to provide baseline data. Plasma aliquots from blood samples collected weekly were analyzed for IGF-I, insulin, glucose, NEFA, and plasma urea nitrogen (PUN). Plasma IGF-I and insulin, measured weekly, increased (P < 0.001) with greater nutrient intake from wk 2 of life to slaughter. Plasma glucose and NEFA also increased (P < 0.05) with nutrient intake. In addition, each calf underwent a GH challenge beginning 4 d before the scheduled slaughter. Plasma from blood collected before the first GH injection and 14 and 24 h after the third injection was analyzed for IGF-I and PUN. Response to challenge, calculated as the absolute difference between the prechallenge and 14-h postchallenge plasma IGF-I concentrations, was significant in calves on all three treatments. Plasma urea nitrogen was not different among treatments as measured weekly but decreased (P < 0.001) following GH challenge in all calves. Results of ribonuclease protection assays showed increased expression of hepatic mRNA for GH receptor 1A and IGF-I with increased intake. The amounts of GH receptor and IGF-I mRNA in muscle and adipose, however, were not affected by intake. In summary, plasma IGF-I was elevated in calves with increased nutrient intake, and the elevations in plasma IGF-I following short-term administration of GH were significant in all calves by 65 kg BW. Data demonstrate that in well-managed milk-fed calves the somatotropic (GH/IGF-I) axis is functionally coordinated and sensitive to nutrient intake and GH.     

Effect of genetic selection for milk yield and increased milking frequency on plasma growth hormone and prolactin concentration in Holstein cows

Fifty Holstein cattle, either second to fourth generation daughters of cows randomly bred to non-commercial sires originating in the Virginia Tech dairy herd (estimated mean PDM84 = -455 kg, control animals), or daughters of cows bred to commercially available sires (mean PDM84 = +368 kg, selection animals), were randomly assigned to be milked twice or thrice daily starting at parturition. Serial blood samples were collected via jugular cannulae at 30, 90 and 200 d post-partum (DPP) during both the first and second lactations. Blood samples were collected for 3 h prior to and 4 h following thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) administration, and were analyzed for growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL) concentrations. Dry matter intake, body weight and milk yield and fat content were used to calculate net energy balance (NEB) of animals at each DPP sampling period. Mean plasma GH concentrations were greater (P less than .01) in selection vs control animals both before and after TRH administration, and decreased (P less than .01) with advancing lactation (30 greater than 90 greater than 200 DPP). However, NEB was not influenced by genetic merit, implying that observed differences in GH concentrations were not due to that trait. Plasma PRL concentrations were not affected by genetic merit or DPP, but were greater (P less than .01) in the second vs first lactation. Neither PRL or GH concentrations were affected by frequency of milking. The results support the contention that increased plasma GH concentrations are associated with selection for increased milk yield.     

Dexamethasone and colostrum feeding affect hepatic gluconeogenic enzymes differently in neonatal calves

Plasma glucose concentrations in neonates are influenced by colostrum feeding and by glucocorticoids. We have tested whether a high-glucocorticoid status after birth, as well as colostrum feeding, influences glucose metabolism in association with changes of hepatic expression and activities of gluconeogenic enzymes phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK; EC 4.1.1.32) and pyruvate carboxylase (PC; EC 6.4.1.1) in neonatal calves. Calves (n = 14 per group) were fed either colostrum or a milk-based formula with nutrient and energy contents similar to colostrum. Half the calves in each feeding group were treated with dexamethasone (DEXA; 30 microg/[kg BW x d]). Pre- and postprandial blood samples were taken on d 1, 2, 4, and 5 and liver samples were collected on d 5 of life. Dexamethasone treatment increased (P < or = 0.05) plasma concentrations of glucose, insulin, and glucagon more in colostrum-fed than in formula-fed calves but increased (P < or = 0.05) urea concentrations and decreased (P < or = 0.05) concentrations of NEFA, ACTH, and cortisol independent of colostrum vs. formula feeding. Colostrum feeding increased (P < 0.05) plasma glucose, but decreased (P < 0.05) plasma urea concentrations. Glucagon-to-insulin ratios in DEXA-treated and colostrum-fed calves were decreased (P < 0.05). Dexamethasone treatment decreased hepatic mRNA levels and activities of PC (P < 0.001 and P < 0.10) and activities of PEPCK (P < 0.001) but increased (P < 0.001) the glycogen content. Colostrum feeding increased (P < 0.05) mitochondrial PEPCK mRNA levels and PEPCK activities in calves not treated with DEXA but decreased (P < 0.1) amounts of PC mRNA. In conclusion, increased plasma glucose concentrations after DEXA treatment were not associated with a stimulation of hepatic gluconeogenic enzyme activities; however, colostrum feeding probably raised plasma glucose concentrations because of increased hepatic gluconeogenic activities.     

Effects of feeding level of milk replacer on body growth,plasma metabolite and insulin concentrations,and visceral organ growth of suckling calves

The objective was to evaluate effects of feeding level of milk replacer on body growth, plasma metabolite and insulin concentrations, and allometric growth of visceral organs in suckling calves. Holstein bull calves (n = 8; 3–4 days of age) were fed either a low amount (average 0.63 kgDM/day, LM) or high amount (average 1.15 kgDM/day, HM) of high protein milk replacer until they were slaughtered at 6 weeks of age. Body weight (BW) at 4, 5, and 6 weeks of age, feed intake, average daily gain, and feed efficiency were higher in the HM than LM calves. The HM group had higher plasma glucose at 3 and 4 weeks of age and insulin levels after the age of 4 weeks compared with LM calves whereas no effect was detected on plasma nonesterified fatty acid or urea nitrogen concentrations. The HM calves had greater empty body weight (EBW), viscera‐free BW and most of the organs dissected than LM calves. Relative weights (% of EBW) of liver, spleen, kidneys, and internal fat were higher, whereas head and large intestine was lower in HM than LM calves. The results suggest that increased milk feeding levels would accelerate the growth of the body and specific organs.     

Digestibility and blood parameters in the preruminant calf fed a clotting or a nonclotting milk replacer

Eight male Holstein calves 7 to 10 d of age were fed a milk replacer containing a skim milk powder subjected to low-temperature drying either with or without addition of an oxalate-NaOH buffer known to prevent curd formation. The calves were used in a completely randomized design to study the effect of milk clotting on digestibility and blood parameters. Plasma glucose and plasma insulin were similar (P greater than .05) for the clotting and the nonclotting milk replacers. For both treatments, concentrations of glucose and insulin reached a peak 2 h postfeeding (P less than .01). Plasma triglycerides were higher (P less than .01) postfeeding for the nonclotting than for the clotting milk replacer. Plasma essential amino acids and plasma urea were higher, whereas plasma calcium was lower, for the nonclotting milk (P less than .01). Digestibility of dry matter, protein and fat was similar (P greater than .05) between clotting and nonclotting milk. The dry matter content of feces was not affected by clotting (P greater than .05). The data are interpreted to indicate that clotting of the milk replacer modifies blood concentrations of triglycerides, essential amino acids and urea without changing the digestibility of the diet.     

Effects of intravenous ghrelin injection on plasma growth hormone,insulin and glucose concentrations in calves at weaning

Ghrelin action, which stimulates growth hormone (GH) secretion, may alter during the weaning period in calves. Our objective was to compare the effects of intravenous ghrelin injection on plasma GH, insulin and glucose concentrations in calves around the weaning period. Four Holstein bull calves were fed whole milk and allowed free access to solid feeds, and weaned at 7 weeks of age. Measurements were performed at weeks 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11 and 13, when calves were intravenously injected with ghrelin (1.0 μg/kg body weight (BW)) through a catheter, and jugular blood samples were obtained temporally relative to the injection time. Estimated digestible energy intake per metabolic BW transiently decreased at week 7 because of low solid intake immediately after weaning, and thereafter gradually increased. Plasma insulin and glucose concentrations were not affected by ghrelin injection at all ages. In contrast, plasma GH concentrations increased with ghrelin injection at all ages. The incremental area of GH at week 7 was greatest and significantly higher compared with weeks 2, 4, 6 and 9. This result suggests that nutrient insufficiency immediately after weaning enhances GH responsiveness to ghrelin.     

Effects of ruminal infusion of volatile fatty acids on plasma concentration of growth hormone and insulin in sheep.

In an initial experiment we observed postprandial changes in plasma concentrations of growth hormone (GH), insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin (SRIF) in sheep. We then examined whether increasing the rumen concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA) by infusing a VFA mixture at three rates (53.5, 107, and 214 micromol/kg/min for 4 hr) mimicked the postprandial changes in hormone secretion. Feeding significantly (P < 0.05) suppressed the plasma GH concentration for 6 hr, whereas it significantly (P < 0.05) increased plasma concentrations of insulin, glucagon, and SRIF. Plasma glucose levels tended to decrease after feeding but then gradually increased over the prefeeding level (P < 0.05). Intraruminal infusion of the VFA mixture at 107 micromol/kg/min caused similar changes in ruminal VFA concentrations to those seen after feeding. The infusion significantly (P < 0.05) suppressed GH secretion in a dose-dependent manner, whereas it caused a significant (P < 0.05) increase in insulin and glucose concentrations without changing glucagon concentrations. From these results, we conclude that the postprandial change in ruminal VFA concentration may be a physiological signal which modifies GH and insulin secretion in sheep.     

Relationships between breeding values and physiological responses to fasting and refeeding in dairy bulls: update for young animals

SUMMARY: Relationships between plasma concentrations of growth hormone (GH), free fatty acids (FFA), urea (UR), glucose (GL) and insulin (IN) and estimated breeding values (EBV) were examined for 213 Australian Holstein-Friesian diary bulls tested in 1985-1988 at four artificial breeding centres. Measurements were taken before and after 3 days of fasting and, for 124 bulls sampled in 1987 or later, 24 h after resumption of feeding. Results for 150 older bulls at two centres (V and N) are compared with those for 27 bulls averaging 27 months tested at centre N and of 37 yearling bulls tested at two other centres. Both younger and older bulls showed low positive correlations of around 0.25 between mean plasma GH and EBVs. However, earlier results from centre V suggesting relationships between EBVs and the increase in FFA with fasting, the subsequent decrease in FFA and increase in GL following resumption of feeding were not repeated for the younger bulls which exhibited substantially higher concentrations of FFA and lower concentrations of insulin after 3 days of fasting. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Zusammenh?nge zwischen Zuchtwerten und physiologischen Reaktionen auf Hungerperioden und Wiederaufnabme der Fütterung bei Milchviehbullen-aktualisierte Untersuchung fur jüngeren Bullen Die Zusammenh?nge zwischen Plasmakonzentrationen von freien Fetts?uren (FFA), Harnstoff (UR), Glukose (GL), Insulin (IN) und Somatrotopin (GH) und Zuchtwerten (ZW) 213 australischer Holstein-Friesian Bullen wurden untersucht. Die physiologischen Messungen wurden im Zeitraum 1985-1988 in vier KB Stationen vor und nach einer 3-t?gigen Hungerperiode durchgeführt. Für 124 Bullen, die nach 1986 geprüft wurden, wurden zus?zliche physiologische Messungen 24 Stunden nach der ersten Futteraufnahme durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse von 150 ?lteren Bullen von 2 Stationen (V und N) wurden verglichen mit den Ergebnissen von 27 jüngeren Bullen mit einem Durchschnittsalter von 27 Monaten, die in der Station N geprüft wurden und weiterhin mit den Ergebnissen von 37 Bullen, die in zwei weiteren Stationen getestet wurden. Sowohl für die jüngeren als auch für die ?lteren Bullen wurden geringe positive Korrelationen von ungef?hr 0,25 zwischen dem durchschnittlichen Somatropin Gehalt und dem ZW festgestellt. Frühere Ergebnisse der Station V zeigten Beziehungen zwischen dem ZW der Bullen und einem Anstieg der FFA w?hrend der Hungerperiode mit einem anschlie?endem Absinken der FFA und einem gleichzeitigem Ansteigen des Glucosegehaltes nach der erste Futteraufnahme. Diese Beziehungen zwischen den ZW und den Gehalten an FFA und GL wurden für die jüngeren Bullen nicht beobachtet, die h?herere Konzentrationen von FFA und geringere Konzentrationen von IN nach einer 3-t?gigen Hungerperiode zeigten.     

Relationship between age, nutritional status and dairy merit with plasma profiles of growth hormone (GH) and free fatty acids (FFA) in bulls

SUMMARY: Blood plasma levels of growth hormone (bGH) and of free fatty acids (FFA) were measured in repeated samples drawn every 15' for bHG, every 1 h for FFA one day after morning feeding and after 3 days of severe feed restriction of 7 young (< 2 years) and 14 old (> 5 years) bulls. The numerous data were condensated by the PULSAR program of Merriam and Wachter (1982) to mean level, average baseline concentration, number, average amplitude and average duration of secretory peaks. Young bulls had higher values for all of these parameters except peak duration and increased these after fast except for peak duration, baseline and integral while mature bulls reacted little to food restriction. FFA plasma levels were higher in young bulls under normal feeding when mature bulls had more frequent peaks. After feed restriction mature bulls increased the mean plasma level to the increased level of young bulls but decreased the peak frequency. The milk protein yield breeding values are related significantly to mean level, integral and the peak duration of plasma bGH levels but in different directions in young and in mature bulls. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Beziehungen zwischen Alter, Futterstatus, Milchzuchtwert und Plasmaspiegel von Wachstumshormon (GH) und Freien Fetts?uren (FFA) bei Stieren Blutplasmaspiegel von Wachstumshormon (GH) und Freien Fetts?uren (FFA) wurden in wiederholten Proben gemessen, die im Falle von GH alle 15 min. und im Falle von FFA jede Stunde einen Tag nach Morgenfütterung, nach drei Tagen starker Futterrestriktion bei sieben jungen (weniger als zwei Jahre) und 14 alten (über fünf Jahre) Stieren gezogen worden waren. Die zahlreichen Daten wurden mit Hilfe des Computerprogrammes von Merriam und Wachter (1982) kondensiert zu durchschnittlichen Plasmaspiegel, durchschnittliche Basiskonzentration, Zahl, durchschnittliche Amplitude und durchschnittliche Dauer von Sekretionsspitzen und Integral. Die Jungstiere hatten für alle diese Parameter h?here Werte, au?er der Dauer von Sekretionsspitzen und nahmen mit Ausnahme von dieser, von Basisspiegel und Integral nach Futterrestriktion zu, w?hrend Altstiere auf diese sehr wenig reagiert haben. FFA-Plasmaspiegel waren bei jungen Stieren h?her unter Normalfütterung, w?hrend alte Stiere h?ufiger Sekretionsspitzen zeigten. Nach Futterrestriktion steigerten Altstiere den mittleren Plasmaspiegel auf den angestiegenen Spiegel junger Stiere, aber verminderten die H?ufigkeit der Sekretionsspitzen. Milchprotein-Zuchtwerte sind signifikant mit mittlerem Plasmaspiegelwert, Integral und Dauer der Sekretionsspitzen bei Plasma GH korreliert, aber in verschiedener Richtung bei jungen und bei Altstieren.     

Neonatal hemiorchidectomy of bulls alters plasma growth hormone levels and advances onset of pubertal testosterone secretion

Bovine GH and testosterone profiles were determined in plasma collected at 20 min intervals during 3 hr bleeding periods on day 25 of life and every 15 days thereafter in six intact (I) Holstein bull calves and in six others which had been hemiorchidectomized (HO) at 10 days of age. In I bulls average plasma GH concentrations varied between 7.9 and 14.5 ng/ml (P greater than 0.05) until 130 days of age, after which the GH level gradually rose (P = 0.007) to a maximum of 19.4 ng/ml on day 205 of life. Episodic release of GH was apparent in 55 day-old and older I bulls and in HO bulls of all ages. Plasma GH concentrations in HO bulls were higher than in I bulls 15 and 30 days after surgery (P = 0.07), at which times the levels in HO bulls averaged 19.6 and 22.5 ng/ml and in I bulls 10.3 and 10.2 ng/ml, respectively. Plasma GH in HO bulls again exceeded that of I bulls at ages of 130-190 days (P = 0.04). Plasma testosterone was virtually nondetectable before 130 days of age in I bulls but thereafter exhibited the typical episodic pattern. In HO bulls, plasma testosterone concentrations began to rise 15 to 30 days before those in I bulls, resulting in an age X treatment interaction (P less than 0.0001). Furthermore, average testosterone levels were higher (P = 0.07) in HO than I bulls at 235 and 250 days of age.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Serum hormone and metabolite concentrations in fasted young bulls and steers.

The effect of dietary energy restriction on serum insulin, insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), growth hormone, (GH), cortisol, plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) and nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations was examined. Angus bulls and steers (10 mo) were allotted to two groups of 12 animals and assigned a treatment order. In a switchback design, animals in order 1 were fed a high grain diet, then fasted, while order 2 animals were fasted, and then fed. Animals were allowed 60 hr to acclimate between treatments. Serum and plasma were obtained at 20 min intervals and 60 min, respectively, for 6 hr after feeding and for the last 6 hr of a 30 hr fast. Serum was assayed for insulin, IGF-I, GH, and cortisol (total and free). Plasma was assayed for PUN and NEFA. Mean insulin (ng/ml) differed between fed (.95 +/- .08) and fasted (.26 +/- .08) animals (P less than 01). Both mean total and free cortisol (ng/ml) were lower in fed (11.48 +/- .99) (1.06 +/- .12) than in fasted (17.10 +/- .93) (1.62 +/- .12) animals, respectively (P less than .01). Animals in order 1 differed in mean IGF-I (ng/ml) between fed (199.0 +/- 8.0) and fasted (116.5 +/- 7.2) treatments (P less than .01). Mean IGF-I for animals in order 2 was 146.7 +/- 7.2 in fed and 213.9 +/- 7.2 in fasted animals (P less than .01). Mean GH did not differ between treatments. Mean PUN and NEFA were higher in fasted than in fed animals (P less than .01). Except for % free cortisol (P less than .05), the hormones did not differ between bulls and steers.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Effects of low feed intake and hot environment on plasma profiles of glucose, nonesterified fatty acids, insulin, glucagon, and IGF-I in lactating sows

This experiment was designed to compare the effects of high ambient temperature and of feed restriction on plasma hormones and metabolites in primiparous lactating sows. Females were exposed to a constant thermoneutral (20 degrees C) or hot environment (30 degrees C) during lactation. Sows housed at 30 degrees C were given free access to feed (30AL: n = 12), whereas those housed at 20 degrees C were either pair-fed with those at 30 degrees C (20RF: n = 6) or were fed ad libitum (20AL: n = 6). A jugular vein catheter was surgically inserted in all sows at 100 d of gestation. Absorption of nutrients during the meal induced significant increases in plasma glucose, insulin, and glucagon, and a decrease in nonesterified fatty acids on Day 19 of lactation and Day 1 postweaning (P < 0.05). On Day 19, feed restriction at 20 degrees C was associated with higher plasma glucagon before the meal, lower plasma insulin after the meal and a lower insulin-to-glucagon ratio (I/GA) before and after the meal (P < 0.05). On Day 19, mean plasma concentrations measured in 30AL females were between those measured in 20AL and 20RF sows for nonesterified fatty acids and glucagon before feeding, and for glucose, nonesterified fatty acids, insulin, and glucagon after feeding. None of the differences between the 30AL and the 20RF groups was significant (P < 0.1). On Day 19, the only significant differences between the 30AL and 20AL groups were observed after the meal for plasma insulin and I/GA. Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I increased after farrowing in 20AL and 30AL sows only (P < 0.05). It was higher in 20AL than in 20RF and 30AL sows on Days 4 and 19 of lactation (P < 0.05). Overall, underfeeding at 20 degrees C induced changes in plasma insulin, glucagon, I/GA, and insulin-like growth factor-I, which would favor gluconeogenesis and body-reserve mobilization during lactation. Differences in glucagon and I/GA before the meal between well-fed sows at 20 degrees C and heat-exposed sows were attenuated, which could have detrimental consequences on glucose availability to the mammary gland and hence on milk production at 30 degrees C.     

Effects of Ostertagia ostertagi infection on secretion of metabolic hormones in calves.

Effects of Ostertagia ostertagi infection on secretion of insulin, pancreatic glucagon, cortisol, gastrin, and pepsinogen were studied in calves inoculated with 100,000 (group 1) or 10,000 (group 2) O ostertagi infective larvae weekly for 14 weeks. Plasma insulin concentrations in both inoculated groups were lower than those in a non-infected (group 3) control group. The differences between group 1 and group 3 were significant (P < 0.05) at 2 and 12 weeks after initial inoculation. Plasma pancreatic glucagon and cortisol concentrations of groups 1 and 2 did not differ significantly from those of the control group, although plasma pancreatic glucagon concentration was consistently lower in group-1 calves from 4 weeks to end of the study. Plasma pepsinogen and serum gastrin concentrations also increased significantly (P < 0.05) in both groups that received inoculations. We concluded that decreased plasma insulin concentrations are contributory to changes in postabsorptive protein metabolism, and that serum gastrin concentrations are more representative of the pathologic changes in the abomasum than are plasma pepsinogen concentrations.     

Glucose Homoeostasis and Regulation in Lactating Mink ( Mustela vison ): Effects of Dietary Protein,Fat and Carbohydrate Supply

The ability of lactating mink dams to control glucose homoeostasis, when fed diets containing different ratios of metabolizable energy (ME) from protein, fat and carbohydrates, was studied by measuring plasma concentrations of glucose, insulin, glucagon, urea and free fatty acids (FFA), in the fasted and absorptive state 4 weeks postpartum, in two consecutive years. A total of 36 yearling female mink, fitted with jugular vein catheters and raising litters of six or seven kits, was fed ad libitum lactation diets with different amounts of ME derived from protein, fat and carbohydrates (year 1:61:37:2, 46:37:17 and 31:37:32; year 2:61:38:1, 47:52:1 and 33:66:1). After 3 h fasting the dams were fed 210 kJ ME of the experimental diets. Blood samples were drawn 10 and 5 min before feeding and 30, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 min postprandially. The glucose concentration was increased 30 to 150 min postprandially in dams fed the carbohydrate-containing diets (46:37:17 and 31:37:32), whereas the glucose concentration showed no postprandial response in dams fed the carbohydrate-free diets (61:38:1, 47:52:1 and 33:66:1). Plasma insulin concentrations were increased 30 to 120 min postprandially in all dams, irrespective of dietary treatment. Plasma concentrations of glucagon were higher ( P <0.005) in dams fed the low-protein diets (31:37:32 and 33:66:1) than in dams fed the high-protein diets (61:37:2 and 61:38:1). Postprandially, the glucagon : insulin ratios decreased in dams fed the carbohydrate-containing diets, whereas the glucagon:insulin ratios tended to increase in dams fed the carbohydrate-free diets. Plasma concentrations of urea were significantly higher in dams fed the high-protein diets. Plasma concentrations of FFA, measured in the second experiment (year 2) only, showed increased concentrations postprandially, the responses being significant in dams fed the 33:66:1 and 61:38:1 diets. In conclusion, the mink is able to regulate the concentrations of blood constituents involved in maintaining glucose homoeostasis, and thereby to adapt to a wide range of dietary protein and carbohydrate supply.     

Response to selection for milk yield and metabolic challenges in primiparous dairy cows

The effect of selection for milk yield on lactation yield, net energy balance, and on plasma growth hormone, insulin, prolactin, nonesterified fatty acids and glucose was studied in two groups of primiparous Holstein cows of differing genetic merit. Net energy balance was calculated and serial blood samples were collected for a 7 hr period at 0, 45, 90 and 180 days postpartum. Growth hormone releasing factor (.2 μg/kg BW) was administered after 2.5 hr at 0, 45 and 180 days postpartum, while epinephrine (.7 μg/kg BW) was administered at 90 days postpartum, Milk yield was greater, net energy balance was decreased and plasma growth hormone was greater in genetically superior selection group cows compared to control cows.

Growth hormone showed similar increases in both genetic groups in response to growth hormone releasing factor, while prolactin, insulin and glucose were not altered. Epinephrine stimulated an increase in plasma nonesterified fatty acid, glucose and insulin, but responses did not differ between genetic groups. Results indicate differences exist in production efficiency, net energy balance and plasma growth hormone concentration among dairy cattle as a result of selection for milk yield and suggest that selection pressure may act to alter homeorhetic control of nutrient metabolism.     

Plasma concentrations and effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide in calves before and after weaning

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide (GLP-1), secreted by the small intestine, has insulinotropic and glucose-lowering action. Basal plasma GLP-1 concentrations were measured in calves around the weaning period, the effect of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) on plasma GLP-1 concentrations was examined, and the effects of GLP-1 administration on plasma insulin, glucagon, and glucose concentrations were measured. Thirteen Holstein bull calves were fed whole milk and solid feed and weaned at 7 wk of age. Preprandial plasma samples were obtained from 5 calves once a week from week 0 to 13 to measure basal concentrations of plasma GLP-1 and insulin (experiment 1). Four calves were intravenously administered with a mixed solution of SCFA (2.4 mmol/kg body weight [BW]) in week 2 and 11 to measure plasma GLP-1 concentrations (experiment 2). Another 4 calves were intravenously injected with GLP-1 (1.0 μg/kg BW) to elucidate the response of plasma insulin, glucagon, and glucose concentrations in week 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, and 13 (experiment 3). In experiment 1, age and weaning did not affect preprandial basal concentrations of plasma GLP-1 throughout the experimental period. Preprandial insulin concentrations increased after weaning (P < 0.05), and GLP-1 and insulin were more strongly correlated postweaning than preweaning. In experiment 2, intravenous treatment with SCFA increased plasma GLP-1 concentrations in both week 2 and 11 (P < 0.05.) In experiment 3, intravenous GLP-1 treatment decreased plasma glucose concentrations throughout the experiment (P < 0.05), but increased plasma insulin concentrations only after weaning (P < 0.05). Treatment with GLP-1 did not affect plasma glucagon concentrations, regardless of age. These results indicate that preprandial basal concentrations of plasma GLP-1 in calves are not changed by weaning, but SCFA stimulate GLP-1 secretion. The insulinotropic action of GLP-1 is detected only after weaning, but the glucose-lowering action of GLP-1 is not affected by weaning.     

Glucose and insulin metabolism in ruminating and veal calves fed high and low fat diets.

Holstein male calves were maintained on conventional (milk to 6 wk of age, fed grain and hay after weaning) and veal (milk replacer only) diets to 16 wk of age. Within each of these 2 physiological states (ruminating or non-ruminating), calves were fed low or high fat diets (ruminating: 3 and 10%; veal: 10 and 18%). Glucose tolerance tests were undertaken at 8 and 16 wk of age in each group. Basal concentrations (4 hr postfeeding) and areas under the response curves for plasma glucose and insulin were higher in veal calves (P < .0001). Ruminating calves fed higher fat utilized glucose more readily (smaller areas under the curves for both glucose and insulin, P < .10) than those fed lower fat. Age did not influence basal glucose concentrations (P > .10), but older calves had higher basal insulin (P < .0001) and greater areas under the curves (P < .0005) for both glucose and insulin after a glucose challenge. Rate of clearance (k) was greater in ruminating calves (P < .001). Though rate of clearance in veal calves was slower, larger plasma pool size caused veal calves on average to utilize glucose at a 15% greater rate per kg body weight than ruminating calves. Whereas fat concentration in the diets did not influence glucose metabolism in veal calves, the high lactose content (> 50% of diet dry matter) of veal diets induced severe insulin resistance in these calves.     

The effect of the use of milk-based feed mixtures and whole milk on the development of selected indicators in the blood plasma in calves

Two milk feeding systems were investigated as influencing the health and development of calves. After the termination of colostrum feeding, the ten animals of the experimental group were given whole milk whereas the control group (also ten calves) was given the Laktosan milk replacer. By the age of three months, blood was collected from the calves for biochemical examination in weekly intervals, later once a month. The content of urea, determined in the blood plasma of the calves of the experimental group was significantly lower in the fourth to seventh week. The plasma levels of nitrogen, potassium, calcium and magnesium were about the same in the experimental and control groups, being within the limits of the reference values. At the age of six to nine weeks, the content of inorganic phosphorus in the blood plasma of the tested animals was statistically significantly higher. Vitamin A concentration in the blood plasma was about the same in both groups. The content of vitamin E in the blood plasma of the calves of the experimental group was statistically significantly higher in the fourth to eight week of age. No significant differences between the two groups were observed in the plasmatic activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GMT). The activities of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were significantly higher in the third to fifth week of life. From the fifth to eighteenth week of age, the average daily weight gains were significantly higher in the calves given whole milk.     

Effects of 5'-uridylic acid feeding on postprandial plasma concentrations of metabolites and metabolic hormones in pre-weaning goats

5'-Uridylic acid (UMP), which is present at high concentrations in cow's colostrum, has been shown to cause a reduction in increased plasma levels of insulin and glucose after ingestion of milk replacer in pre-weaning calves. However, the precise mechanisms of UMP action have not been investigated, and its action has not been investigated in other pre-weaning ruminants. In order to demonstrate whether UMP causes changes in postprandial metabolic and hormonal parameters in pre-weaning goats, 11 Saanen kids were given milk replacer (twice a day) without ( n  = 5) or with ( n  = 6) UMP (1 g for each meal, 2 g/day for each head) for 14 days. Analysis of blood samples taken in the morning of day 14 demonstrated that the feeding of milk replacer with UMP abolished the significant changes in postprandial plasma glucose, NEFA, GH and insulin concentrations induced by feeding of milk replacer alone, and demonstrated a tendency to increase IGF-I levels. However, there was no significant difference between the two groups at any sampling time. We conclude that UMP feeding with milk replacer showed a tendency to blunt the postprandial changes in levels of some plasma metabolites and hormones that are induced by replacer alone in pre-weaning goats.