Breeding programs for smallholder sheep farming systems: I. Evaluation of alternative designs of breeding schemes

Village‐ and central nucleus‐based schemes were simulated and evaluated for their relative bio‐economic efficiencies, using Ethiopia's Menz sheep as example. The schemes were: village‐based 2‐tier (Scheme‐1) and 1‐tier (Scheme‐2) cooperative village breeding schemes, dispersed village‐based nuclei scheme (Scheme‐3), conventional 2‐tier central nucleus‐based scheme (Scheme‐4), and schemes linking a central nucleus and village multiplier nuclei with selection in central nucleus (Scheme‐5) or in both central and village nuclei (Scheme‐6). Among village‐based schemes, Scheme‐1 gave the highest genetic progress, while Scheme‐2 was economically the most efficient with genetic gain in the breeding objective of Birr 5.6 and a profit of Birr 37.2/ewe/year. The central nucleus schemes were more efficient than the village schemes. Scheme‐4 was the most efficient with genetic gain in the breeding objective of Birr 13.5 and a profit of Birr 71.2, but is operationally more difficult as it requires a very large central nucleus. The choice between village and central nucleus‐based schemes would depend on local conditions (availability of infrastructure, logistics and technical knowhow and support). Linking central nucleus with village‐based nuclei (Scheme‐6) would be a feasible option to overcome the operational difficulties of the conventional central nucleus scheme. If a village‐based breeding program is envisaged as should be the 1st step in most low‐input systems, then Scheme‐2 is the most efficient. To scale out to an entire Menz breed level, Scheme‐3 would be recommended.     

The characteristics and causes of sheep losses in the Victorian Mallee

SUMMARY The extent and causes of sheep losses in the semi-arid Mallee region of north-western Victoria were assessed by interviewing the owners of 79 randomly selected farms running 241 flocks in 1987/88 and 245 flocks in 1988/89. Mean annual losses were higher in ram flocks (21%) than in ewe flocks (7%), in flocks of non-Merino sheep (rams 24%, ewes 11%, weaners 5%) than in Merino (rams 11%, ewes 6%, wethers 4%, weaners 4%) and in ewe flocks 3 or more years old (10%) than in young ewe flocks (3.5%). In flocks where losses exceeded 5%, the causes most often reported by farmers were blowfly strike (especially in Merino sheep and weaners), ewe losses in autumn close to lambing, and heliotrope (Heliotropium europaeum) poisoning. Heliotrope poisoning was considered by the authors to be the main reason for the higher losses in old ewes than in young ewes and in non-Merino sheep than in Merino sheep. Losses of ewes associated with pregnancy and lambing were considered by the authors to be often predisposed by liver damage caused by heliotrope poisoning, and high losses in non-Merino ram flocks were attributed to both heliotrope poisoning and their ability to escape through boundary fences. Reasons for continuing high losses due to enterotoxaemia are discussed. Losses due to gastro-intestinal parasites, footrot and foot abscess were low.     

Ram management for northeastern flocks

The ram is an important member of the flock, particularly in smaller, intensively managed flocks such as are found in the Northeast. An infertile ram can spell reproductive and financial failure for the producer. A highly fertile ram can settle more ewes in a shorter time, produce more twins, and confer valuable traits on his offspring. These include wool type, rate of gain and higher sperm production and ovulation rates. Details of the breeding soundness examination, including semen evaluation are discussed. Ram management techniques appropriate for Northeastern sheep producers are presented.     

Feasibility of pedigree recording and genetic selection in village sheep flocks of smallholder farmers

Pedigree recording and genetic selection in village flocks of smallholder farmers have been deemed infeasible by researchers and development workers. This is mainly due to the difficulty of sire identification under uncontrolled village breeding practices. A cooperative village sheep-breeding scheme was designed to achieve controlled breeding and implemented for Menz sheep of Ethiopia in 2009. In this paper, we evaluated the reliability of pedigree recording in village flocks by comparing genetic parameters estimated from data sets collected in the cooperative village and in a nucleus flock maintained under controlled breeding. Effectiveness of selection in the cooperative village was evaluated based on trends in breeding values over generations. Heritability estimates for 6-month weight recorded in the village and the nucleus flock were very similar. There was an increasing trend over generations in average estimated breeding values for 6-month weight in the village flocks. These results have a number of implications: the pedigree recorded in the village flocks was reliable; genetic parameters, which have so far been estimated based on nucleus data sets, can be estimated based on village recording; and appreciable genetic improvement could be achieved in village sheep selection programs under low-input smallholder farming systems.     

Factors affecting the reproductive performance of Awassi sheep flocks in north-east of Jordan: An epidemiological study

A prospective cohort study was conducted using 32 randomly selected Awassi sheep flocks to identify factors hypothesized to be associated with the occurrence of pregnancy, twinning and fetal loss between August 2005 and May 2006 in the region of Al-Safawi (northeast of Jordan). Vitamins A and E and selenium concentrations were determined on 448 blood samples. Using the forward selection procedure of the logistic regression module, models with statistically significant risk factors (P?<?0.05) were constructed for three outcomes; pregnancy, twinning and fetal loss. Serum vitamin A concentration levels were associated with pregnancy (OR?=?2.26, 2.48), twinning (OR?=?6.49, 17.74) and fetal loss (OR?=?0.13, 0.19). Primiparous ewes were 48% less likely to become pregnant than fourth or higher parity ewes. The likelihood of twinning increased significantly in ewes up to the third parity. Ewes that were fed 700-900 g barley, 250-300 g wheat-bran per head per day and grazed on vegetables residues were 4.15 times more likely to have twins than ewes that were fed 600 g barley and 200 g wheat-bran per head per day. Fetal loss in first and second parity ewes was about 3 times more likely than that in third or higher-parity ewes. Ewes pregnant with twins were about 14 times more likely to have fetal loss than ewes carrying single fetus. Pregnant ewes of the stationary flocks were 37% less likely to have fetal loss than ewes of the semi-nomadic flocks. These results demonstrate that stationary Awassi sheep flocks had higher pregnancy and twinning rates and less pregnancy loss. Supplementation of vitamin A, providing sufficient quantity of dry feed and increasing ram: ewe ratio for primiparous ewes of semi-nomadic flocks is essential to improve Awassi sheep reproductive performance.     

Ulcerative vulvitis and balanitis in sheep flocks

Outbreaks of ulcerative vulvitis and balanitis occurred in three commercial sheep flocks in England and Wales. Between 29 and 44 per cent of the ewes were affected; most of the lesions resolved in three weeks. Pathogens such as mycoplasmas, which have previously been associated with these conditions, were not detected despite using improved laboratory techniques. In one of the flocks, ovine herpesvirus type 2 was detected by pcr in the blood of two acutely affected ewes, from the vulval ulcers of one of them, and from the penis of an affected ram.     

Reproductive performance of Finnish Landrace and Suffolk sheep maintained indoors year-round

The reproductive performance (fertility and prolificacy) of Finnish Landrace (Finn) and Suffolk sheep on an accelerated breeding program was evaluated. Both breeds were contained in each of two separate flocks housed indoors year-round on expanded metal floors in windowless buildings. The two flocks were bred alternately at 4-mo intervals in January, May and September. The sheep were exposed to either an abrupt (ALR) or constant (CLR) lighting regimen. Data from nine breedings during a 4-yr period were considered. Fertility was significantly higher for ewes in the ALR lighting regimen. Fertility was lower for ewes bred in September. For ewes that had lambed from breeding 8 mo earlier, fertility was higher for Finn ewes than for Suffolk ewes; however, similar fertility levels were observed in both breeds if the ewes had not lambed following the previous breeding. Higher prolificacy was observed in the Finn ewes than in the Suffolk ewes, but the differences in prolificacy varied with the month of breeding. The probability of a ewe having more than one lamb was significantly higher for Finn ewes than for Suffolk ewes in both January and May breedings, but was similar in September breedings. Incorporating the Finnish Landrace breed into an accelerated breeding program for sheep maintained indoors year-round is a practical way to increase the number of lambs born. Controlling daylength and dividing the flock into smaller flocks are also practical procedures to increase lamb production.     

Evaluation of the efficiency of alternative two-tier nucleus breeding systems designed to improve meat sheep in Kenya

A deterministic approach was used to genetically and economically evaluate the efficiency of five two‐tier nucleus breeding systems for meat sheep in Kenya. The nucleus breeding systems differed in terms of whether the system was closed or open, in the type of animals that were involved in the movement of genetic superiority and in the number of selection pathways in each system. These systems were compared under four alternative breeding objectives based on monetary genetic gain and profit per ewe. The first objective simulated a situation where the flock size cannot be increased due to non‐feed related constraints (FLOCK). The second specifically assumed that the flock size is restricted due to limited amount of feed resources (FEED). The third and fourth objectives assumed that sheep performed only tangible roles (TR) and both tangible and intangible roles (IR) in the production system respectively. Monetary genetic gains were highest for all objectives in an open nucleus system with a certain proportion of commercial‐born ewes being introduced in the nucleus while at the same time utilizing young rams from the nucleus to breed sires and dams for the nucleus and commercial sector (ONyre). Utilizing young rams in a closed nucleus system for the dissemination of superior genes resulted in higher annual monetary genetic gain than utilization of old rams. Profit per ewe was significantly higher for FLOCK and IR in ONyre. In a closed system that allowed for downward movement of dams from the nucleus to the commercial sector to breed sires and dams, profit per ewe was highest for FEED and TR. The success of a nucleus breeding system should also focus on the profitability and logistics of establishing it. The implication of these results on the choice of two‐tier nucleus breeding systems for the improvement of meat sheep is discussed.     

Optimal village breeding schemes under smallholder sheep farming systems

Despite challenges in the implementation of livestock genetic improvement programs in developing regions, including centralized nucleus breeding schemes, these programs can contribute to the improvement of the livelihood of smallholder farmers. In this paper, we present a community- or village-based breeding scheme in which breeding activities are carried out by communities of smallholder farmers. We evaluated genetic responses and the rate of inbreeding from alternative village sheep breeding schemes that were based on a survey of existing flock structure and breeding management in a sheep-barley system in Ethiopia. This survey showed that individual flock sizes were small, and that the majority of farmers practiced mixed grazing and uncontrolled mating of their flocks in communal grazing lands within villages. Here we evaluated within-village schemes (selection across flocks within a village) and across-village schemes (selection across villages) at different intensities of ram selection (i.e. proportions of rams selected, P). Our results showed that under within-village schemes, intensity of selection could not be increased (i.e. P could not be decreased below 0.149) when the rate of inbreeding was constrained to an acceptable level of 0.01, resulting in low genetic gain. The most optimal scheme was found to be across-village selection with at least three villages cooperating and P = 0.05. Our results also indicated that genetic gain from village breeding schemes with mass selection and BLUP selection is comparable. Village breeding schemes can make a significant contribution to the genetic improvement of livestock in Ethiopia and other developing countries.     

The seroprevalence of maedi-visna in Ontario sheep flocks and its relationship to flock demographics and management practices.

The objectives of this study were to describe the serological prevalence of maedi-visna in a sample of Ontario sheep flocks, and to identify management and demographic variables that were associated with seroprevalence for maedi-visna. A sample of 103 sheep flocks in Ontario was randomly selected from those flocks participating in the Red Meat Plan. The owners of these flocks were surveyed regarding management procedures on their farms, and blood samples were taken from a random sample of ewes in each flock. At least one ewe tested serologically positive, based on the agar gel immuno-diffusion test, in 69.9% of the farms. Positive serological reactions occurred in 20.9% of the 3880 sheep tested. Flock demographics and farm management variables were considered in a multiple regression model, and several factors were positively associated with higher maedi-visna seroprevalence rates. These included the average age of the flock, the number of years the owner had been sheep farming, the practice of using foster ewes, the practice of allowing lambs to have contact with other ewes that are lambing, and the average pasture acreage per ewe.     

Use of anthelmintics for nematode control in sheep in West Germany: results of a survey]

A survey by questionnaires was performed on 543 (0.9% of all) sheep flocks in western Germany in 1988/89 to obtain informations about deworming practices against gastrointestinal nematodes. The major informations are: Anthelmintic treatments were associated with the reproductive status of ewes and the breeding of lambs in most of the flocks. They were performed at an epidemiologically appropriate time in many cases but were not accompanied by essential management practices. (Pro)benzimidazole compounds were the anthelmintics most frequently used by more than 95% of the farmers; 22% and 13% of the farmers additionally or exclusively administered levamisole/pyrantel and ivermectin, respectively. On average, treatment of ewes and lambs against nematodes was performed 2.5 times and 2.8 times a year, respectively. The mean frequency of deworming differed regionally and was generally greater in pedigree breeding flocks than in commercial breeding flocks; it was significantly affected by the husbandry system, the number of ewes per flock, the size of available pasture and the class of anthelmintics employed. The results of this survey revealed that many German sheep farmers obviously lack an awareness of the rationale of preventive and economic control practices against gastrointestinal nematodes.     

繁殖母羊分期饲养技术

繁殖母羊是羊场快速扩繁的基础,饲养繁殖母羊的最终目的是充分挖掘母羊的生产潜力,增加羊群数量,提高羊群质量。母羊每年都要经历1~2次配种、妊娠、哺乳这一复杂的繁殖生理过程,每一次繁殖经历,都是对繁殖母羊体质的一次重要考验。只有不断优化繁殖母羊空怀期、妊娠期和哺乳期各阶段、各环节的饲养管理,才能保证繁殖母羊的体质健康,提高产羔率和羔羊成活率,从而提高养羊效益。     

BMPR-IB基因在寒泊羊群体中的增羔效应、遗传规律及育种应用分析

旨在揭示BMPR-IB基因在寒泊羊种群中的多态性及遗传学规律,探讨将BMPR-IB基因第746位碱基发生的A→G突变（FecB突变）作为分子标记进行绵羊多胎品种选育的科学性。本研究对寒泊羊育种核心群的健康种公羊、繁殖母羊、羔羊共计1 267只绵羊个体进行采血,利用PCR-RFLP方法判定个体BMPR-IB基因位点的基因型并进行群体遗传学分析。对繁殖母羊共计980胎次的产羔记录进行统计,分析FecB突变、胎次及产羔季节对胎产羔数性状的影响。统计所设计杂交组合后代共计167只健康羔羊的基因型比例。结果表明,BMPR-IB基因在寒泊羊种群中有BB、B+和++3种基因型,其基因型频率分别为1.97%、73.40%和24.63%,等位基因B和+的频率分别为38.67%、61.33%;BB、B+和++基因型繁殖母羊的平均胎产羔数分别为2.69、1.91、1.57只,目前寒泊羊种群的胎产羔数平均为1.85只;若经过品种选育使寒泊羊个体中增加一个B基因拷贝,胎产羔数预期增加0.44只;父母本杂交组合为B+×++的后代中B+和++基因型的比例为1.11：1,父母本杂交组合为B+×BB的后代中BB和B+基因型的比例为0.82：1,均符合孟德尔分离定律;预测经过6个世代的选育,可使寒泊羊种群母羊基本实现胎产羔数2只的育种目标。本研究结果为绵羊育种实践中制定选种和选配方案提供了理论基础。     

The relationship between nasal myiasis and the prevalence of enzootic nasal tumours and the effects of treatment of Oestrus ovis and milk production in dairy ewes of Roquefort cheese area

Infection by Oestrus ovis is common in Lacaune dairy ewes of Roquefort cheese area (Aveyron, France). It is believed by local breeders that there is a close relationship between nasal myiasis and the incidence of enzootic nasal tumour. In order to check these anecdotal reports, a serological survey was done on 658 breeding ewes before turn-out and 897 breeding and primiparous (hoggets) ewes at the end of the grazing season. By the time of sampling, it was clear whether the sheep were infected at the end of the winter or had been re-infected over summer.In April and September, 40.7 and 26.3%, respectively, were free of O. ovis infection, indicating that the autumn treatment was not completely effective and that O. ovis adult flies were circulating during the summer in many flocks. There were no differences in the incidence of adenocarcinoma between the groups indicating that there is no relationship between O. ovis infection and the presence of the cancer.Differences in milk production between the three groups were not statistically significant (Anova test P>0.05). In flocks where 1-5% of the ewes were infected or in non-infected flocks, ewes produced 3.6 and 8.56%, respectively, more milk than ewes from flocks where more than 5% of animals were infected. For primiparous ewes, the differences were of 8.5 and 12.24%.     

Serologic survey of prevalence of ovine progressive pneumonia in Idaho range sheep.

Blood samples from 2,310 mature sheep in 3 Idaho range flocks were examined by agar gel immunodiffusion to determine the prevalence of ovine progressive pneumonia. The prevalence ranged from 58% for all ages combined in one flock to 90% of cull ewes in another flock. Age-specific prevalence rates increased from 16% in yearlings to 83% in ewes greater than or equal to 7 years old. Rambouillet sheep had a significantly (P less than 0.01) lower prevalence than sheep of 5 other breeds, whereas one-half Finnsheep crosses had a significantly (P less than 0.01) higher prevalence than sheep of other breeds. Within breed and age, there was no significant difference in reproductive performance between seropositive and seronegative ewes.     

PrP genotype progression in flocks participating in the National Scrapie Plan for Great Britain

The National Scrapie Plan (NSP) for Great Britain is a voluntary scheme that, through PrP genotype testing and restricted breeding, aims to reduce the risk of scrapie in the national sheep flock. To gauge the progress in member flocks and within breeds, the genotype profile of successive crops of ram lambs was monitored between 2002 and 2004. In each of the 11 most frequently sampled breeds, the proportion of ram lambs testing in the most resistant genotype category (NSP type 1: ARR/ARR) increased, and there was a reduction in the proportion of genotypes associated with the highest disease risk, that is X/VRQ, where X is an allele other than ARR. Changes in the proportion of ram lambs testing for ARR-heterozygous genotypes (NSP type 2: ARR/X, where X is not VRQ) appeared to be influenced by whether the sheep were hill breeds or non-hill breeds. In each of six frequently sampled hill breeds these genotypes expanded, in relative terms, whereas they declined in four of five prominent lowland/crossing breeds. The proportion of ram lambs that carried neither ARR nor VRQ (NSP type 3) declined consistently in the top 11 breeds, but there was little change in the ARR/VRQ genotype (NSP type 4). Among individual flocks that had ram lambs tested in all three years 2002 to 2004, the majority experienced an increase in the proportion testing ARR/ARR, and of those that had VRQ ram lambs in 2002, most recorded a decrease in their frequency by 2004.     

羊腹腔镜子宫角人工输精技术

采取人工授精技术可极大提高羊的生产性能，增加优秀个体所占比例，加快选育速度；可有效利用具有最优遗传性状的公羊，快捷而有效的增加优秀种羊的推广面与覆盖度；减少种公羊饲养管理费用与死亡率；防止因交配而感染疾病，提高母羊的受胎率。目前，研究人员在新鲜精液的基础上，又开发出了冷冻精液输精，冷冻精液可减少养殖场种公羊的饲养数量，控制养殖场的公母比例，大幅降低养殖成本，提高养殖场的经济效益。作者介绍了阴道输精技术及腹腔镜子宫角输精2种常用输精技术，同时简述了其优缺点；阐述了腹腔镜子宫角输精技术的各项操作流程及操作过程中的注意事项和术后护理等，旨在为腹腔镜子宫角输精技术提供理论依据及在实践过程中提供技术支持。     

Toxoplasmosis in Sheep: The Relative Importance of the Infection as a Cause of Reproductive Loss in Sheep in Norway

The importance of toxoplasmosis as a cause of reproductive loss was examined during the period 1968—1973, based on diagnostic materials submitted from 126 flocks. Toxoplasmosis was diagnosed in 81 of these. Reliable information of the number of breeding ewes and their reproductive performance was obtained from 117 flocks, where 858 of 7812 breeding ewes failed to produce viable lambs. About 80 % of the total loss in these flocks was attributed to toxoplasmosis, 4 % to bacterial infections, and 16 % to non-infectious and/or unidentified causes.The frequency of loss within individual flocks was higher from toxoplasmosis than from any other cause, reaching a maximinn of 78 % of the breeding ewes. In 21 of 42 flocks of at least 20 breeding ewes and a high frequency of loss (≥ 10 %) from toxoplasmosis, 20 % or more of the ewes lost their lambs, whereas a loss of this order only occurred in 1 of the 13 flocks in which some other diagnosis was made.In addition to abortion, toxoplasmosis was also associated with returns to service, barrenness, stillbirth, and delivery of weak lambs that died soon after birth.White spots were observed on the cotyledons of nearly 2/3 of the placentas expelled from toxoplasmosis. No evidence was found that these changes occurred in any other disease.The incidence of abortion was higher among young ewes than among the older ones. No clinical symptoms of infection were observed prior to abortion from toxoplasmosis, and the ewes kept for breeding behaved normally in later pregnancies.     

应用BLUP法评定肉羊育种值的试验研究

本研究根据BLUP原理,利用甘肃省皇城种羊场2000-2003年共4 610只绵羊的断乳重数据资料,筛选出在西北生态条件下,估测肉用种羊育种值的单性状动物模型y=Xb+ Za+Wm+Sl+e。利用此模型评定出61只种公羊的优劣次序,选定出品系繁育继承公羊。     

舍饲肉用绵羊同期发情试验

选择神木县畜牧科技示范园种羊场1.5~3岁健康、中等以上膘情的四种繁殖母羊共600只,将其纯种萨福克羊和萨寒、陶细、德细二元杂交肉羊随机分为3个试验组和1个对照组。试验Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ组分别用PG、阴道栓＋FSH和阴道栓＋PMSG处理,处理后96 h观察结果表明：Ⅰ组的四种羊同期发情率为：萨福克羊58.3%、德细52.9%、萨寒63.3%、陶细57.5%;Ⅱ组相应为：71.9%、78.1%、83.3%、82.1%;Ⅲ组相应为：85.7%、81.8%、87.1%、81.6%。试验Ⅱ、Ⅲ组处理的母羊发情率均显著高于试验Ⅰ组（P〈0.05）,Ⅱ组和Ⅲ组之间母羊发情率差异不显著（P〉0.05）,试验组综合效果均极显著优于对照组。四种羊以萨寒羊同期发情率最高。三种处理的母羊受胎率差异均不显著（P〉0.05）。